英文論文7篇

英文論文7篇

英文論文(1)

中 南 大 學

CENTRAL SOUTH UNIVERSITY

高等教育自學考試英語專業畢業論文

題 目 英語詞綴記憶法芻議

題目類別 語 言 類

學生姓名 劉 麗 娜

考 籍 號 250610200001

學 校 婁底職業技術學院

聯系電話 158********

完成時間 2013-9-17

MY MEAGER OPINION ON ENGLISH AFFIX MEMORY METHOD

by

Liu Lina

(250610200001)

October 2013

School of Foreign Languages

Hunan Normal University

Acknowledgements

Here and now, I extend my sincere thanks to all those who have helped me make this thesis possible and better. First, and most importantly, highest appreciation goes to my honorable supervisor, Dr. Liu Yan, who have checked through my thesis with enormous patience and given me insightful suggestions, and whose way of conducting academic studies with rigor subconsciously affects me and will guide me in my future study. And it has been a great privilege and pleasure to learn from him.

Thanks also to the teachers and professors who have taught me over the past three years of college study. My heartfelt thanks go to Profs. Deng Haiyan, Shao Xiang, and Liu Yan and other teachers whose courses have enlightened me in one way or another.

Contents

Abstract ⅰ

摘要 ⅱ

Introduction 1

Chapter 1 The characteristics and classification of the affix. 3

1.1 The characteristics of the affix 1

1.2 Affix the whole classification 1

1.2.1Prefix. 1

1.2.2Suffix 1

Chapter 2 Semantic feature of affix 1

2.1 Common prefix table 1

2.2 Common suffixes table 2

Chapter 3 The implementation of several principles of affixation memory method 2

3.1 From familiar words to introduce new words，inspire students to think. 2

3.2 From specific to general, lead the students to sum up . 2

3.3 With Ai Binhao"s forgetting curve as the basis, pay attention to knowledge reproduction rate. 2

3.4 Advancing with the times, constantly added new English words. 2

Conclusion 1

Bibliography 1

Abstract

For vocabulary memory and forgetting the contradiction, the author tried to use the affix word formation analysis, study the structure of the English vocabulary, find out the word internal structure and contact law, and summarizes the form law and characteristics of help correct comprehension, vocabulary, and flexible use of the affix word formation of deconstruction learned words, to further consolidate and expand vocabulary. We must, therefore, in the process of learning and memory of English vocabulary, to seek the scientific method to solve the memory and forgetting the contradiction effectively and conveniently memory vocabulary, deepen vocabulary learning. There are two kinds of English affix word formation, add on or before the root word affix name prefix, and in subsequent affix name suffix. Prefix, in general, only change the meaning, rarely change the part of speech, meaning and suffix changes not only also change the parts of speech.

Key words: English affix, memory method, affix word formation

摘 要

詞匯是構筑語言的基本材料,詞匯在語言交際中起著非常重要的作用。英國語言學Wilkins?就曾經說過：“Without?grammar,?a?little?can?be?conveyed,?without?vocabulary,?nothing?can?be?conveyed.”對于英語學習者來說，詞匯量的大小直接影響到其掌握和運用該語言的熟練程度。只有具備了一定的詞匯量，才能更好地發展聽、說、讀、寫、譯等其他基本技能。此外，詞匯在語言發展中也起著非常重要的作用。據統計，英語作為世界上詞匯最豐富的語言，其詞匯已經遠遠超過了200?萬個。而語言是隨著社會的發展而發展的，英語詞匯正以每年至少850?個新詞的速度增加。根據艾賓浩斯遺忘曲線原理，記憶與遺忘交叉于人的記憶過程之中。所以，我們必須在學習和記憶英語詞匯的過程中，尋求科學的記憶方法來解決記憶與遺忘這對矛盾，有效便捷地記憶詞匯，深化詞匯學習。正文：單詞、詞素的定義單詞是語言中最小的自由形式。而詞素是語言中最小的意義單位或元素。

關鍵詞：英語詞綴，記憶法，詞綴構詞

Introduction

Vocabulary is the one of the three basic elements of language (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar), is the building materials of language. If you have not enough vocabulary, you can not communicate and exchange effectively. United Kingdom linguists Wilkins said:" Without?grammar,?a?little?can?be?conveyed,?without?vocabulary,?nothing?can?be?conveyed." American writer and educator, Mr. L. RonHubbars”s educational theory thought that the most important factor of influencing language understanding and application is vocabulary .The Affix Memory Method is a way of using affixes and its semantic features to remember words. This method can infer other things from one fact and comprehend by analogy. It is more easy and firm to memorize English words. It can help students to understand the related vocabulary etymology and culture connotation. In addition, the vocabulary in the development of language also plays a very important role. According to statistics, English as the world"s most abundant vocabulary language, its vocabulary is far more than the 2 million. The language is developed with the development of the society, English vocabulary is increasing at an annual rate of at least 850 new words. According to the principle of ebbinghaus forgetting curve, of

memory and forgetting across the memory process. In the process of evolution history of the development of the English language, affix word formation plays a positive role which cannot be ignored. According to statistics, affix method generated word to 30% ~ 40% of the total number of new words, it not only expands the English vocabulary, also enrich the external form of language. Affix word-formation memory, can be used to the largest extent, help English learners to understand and memorize words, and can quickly and effectively expand their vocabulary. If English learners can find out the rule and character of affix combination, and apply the rule to master and apply the practice of the English vocabulary. They can be further scientific and quickly recognize and remember vocabulary. Using the first method of roots and affixes memory English words can improve the efficiency of word memory, but is only applicable to memory more uncommon words. For common words without root, this method was worthless.

Chapter1

The Characteristics and Classification of the Affix.

1.1 The Characteristics of the Affix

Affixes are bound morpheme, "compose" means “adhesion” by itself. "Affix" also means "fasten to". Affixes are not the main carrier of meaning, but which is tectonic vocabulary force. Can only attach to form neologisms in the root morpheme, it itself does not constitute a word alone. Adhere to affix in front of the root is known as the prefix, adhere to the affix is called suffix behind the root, insert in the middle of the root affixation called infix. Prefix, infix and suffix is clung onto the root of additional ingredients, so they are also known as before after add ingredients, add ingredients and add ingredients. Such as "rats", "tiger" in the "old"; "Writer", "scientists" in the "home".

1.2 Affix the whole classification

Affixes are divided into inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes add in a behind, impart different grammatical relations or grammatical category. Derivational affixes are added in back of stem to

form a new word. This method of constitutes called derivation method, which is called a derivational words. A derivational affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes according to its position of words. Affix word formation and word memory, English can be a stem (word stem) as the core, with the prefix (prefix and suffix (suffix) in different combinations to derive new words. Common combination can be summarized as the following: Low prefix + stem prefix prefix (discover) * 2 + 1 + stem (rediscover) low stem + suffix (soften) low stem + suffix (softener) low prefix + 1 + suffix 2 stem + suffix (discovery) -vice prefix + stem + suffix. In general, affix is active or not can determine tightness of affix and stem. Inactive affix and stems often to have the most closely, and active affix is relatively far from the stem. The classification of the affix according to the part of speech, a noun affix, adjective affixes, affix to affix verbs and adverbs. The classification of the affix according to the part of speech, a noun affix, adjective affix, verbs and adverbs affix. 1. Constitute the adjective suffixes (1) - able, such as fashionable, comfortable and so on. (2) - al, such as economical, himself, etc. 2. The form of adverb suffixes (1) - ly, such as happily, stupidly, etc. (2) - wise, such as money - wise. 3. A verb suffixes (1) - considering, modernize, institutionalize (2) - en, wait like blacken. 4. A noun suffix (1) - or, as called, actor, etc. (2) - anee, such as appearance, perseverance, etc. Affix meaning English affix has two characteristics: the characteristics of polysemy and synonymy. Politely, refers to the same affix may have many meanings. Suffix - ship, for example: (1) the state of being, status, identity, position: friendship, ownership, Professorship. (2) proficiency and skill skills, skills: musicianship scholarship. Synonymy, refers to two or more than two class have the same meaning. Such as the prefix UN -, -, in (at P, m) before im -. Il - (in front of the letter l), (with) in front of the letter r ir -, non - and dis -, mis, and so on all can be placed in front of adjectives, said no meaning.

1.2.1 Prefix. According to prefix meaning can be divided into the following eight:

1.2.1.1 "Negative" prefix.

Un-, in- and dis- both can be used in adjectives, express negative meaning. For instance, untidy不整齊, unstoppable不可阻擋, incorrect不正確, improper不適當, illogical不合邏輯, irregular不規則, dishonest不誠實。Another negative prefix "non-", for the adjective and the noun, means "no". For example, nonfree a.沒有自由, nonperson n.毫無地位、微不足道的人等。

1.2.1.2 "Antisense" prefix.

Un- added to the front of verbs or nouns , said “opposite action "or" release ".For example, unpack除去;De- used in the front of a verb or abstract noun ,said "removed". For example ,de-egulate撤銷…的管制.

1.2.1.3 "Contempt" prefix.

Mis-, to construct verbs, means "wrong" or "fall into a wrong path of" .For example ,misunderstand錯誤地理解, mislead領錯路,使人誤解,miscalculate算錯,錯誤地估計。Mal- means "Evil" or "bad". For instance, mal-treat虐待,malnutrition營養不良等。

1.2.1.4 "Degree" prefix.

Super- to construct nouns, adjectives and verbs, means "beyond”. For example, supermarket超市; superspeed超高速,superpower超級大國, superman超人。

1.2.1.5 "Attitude" prefix.

Anti-, to construct nouns or adjectives, means "against". For example anti-war反對戰爭, anticancer抗癌癥,anti-social反社會。 Pro- means "yes" .For example, pro-European贊成西歐洲一體化, pro-American親美的, pro-Communist親共的。Counter- means "against", for example, counter-revolution革命, counter-charge反訴,倒打一耙示。Re- means "back", for example, react反作用, resist抵抗等。

1.2.1.6 "Location" prefix.

Inter- means "......between ", for instance, international國際的。Sub- means “… under”, for example, subway地鐵道。Super – means ......above , for instance ,"superstructure上層建筑。

1.2.1.7 "Time" and "order" prefix.

Ex- located in the front of noun, means “before......".For instance, ex-wife前妻, ex-husband前夫, ex-serviceman退伍軍人。Fore- used in the front of verbs and abstract noun, means "before". For instance, foresee,預見,預知.Pre - "before”, such as prenatal出生前的.Post - "......after, such as "post-war戰后的。

1.2.1.8 "Quantity" prefix.

Express numeral prefix ,“ semi-, emi-, demi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly, centi-和milli-。”

1.2.2 Suffix .Suffixes are divided into four categories: noun suffix , verbs, adjectives and adverbs suffix .

1.2.2.1 Noun suffix .

Some suffixes are added in the behind of nouns to form abstract nouns. Like -hood, means "period", for instance ,childhood意為童年時期; -Ship means "nature", for instance, relationship表示關系;In addition some adjectives into nouns. -ist can be used to a person noun, for instance ,communist表示共產黨員。Finally a noun suffix to verbs converted into nouns, er, - ee, - ation and - ment. -er is used to constitute a person noun suffix, with almost every verb noun. For instant teacher and player。

1.2.2.2 Verb suffix.

Verb Suffixes include - ify, - ize, - en. -ify form of the verb with a causative meaning, Simplify said simplified. –ize and -ify is probably the same, expressed through the new equipment and technology that makes something more suitable for now, modernization表現代化。

1.2.2.3 Adjective suffix.

In Contemporary English has many adjective suffixes, one of the most commonly used with - able, - ful. Able will be mainly used in the transformation of verb is an adjective, meaning "to" or "worth it". Like the "movable"-可移動的.In addition there are some adjective suffixes, such as - less, - y, - ish, - ed, - al – ic and -ous.

1.2.2.4 Adverb suffix.

Adverb suffix only three, - ly, - ward, and - wise (s).-Ly for adjectives, which means the side: in some way, for instant , happily意為快樂地。-Ward (s) is usually attached to the preposition, adverb verb form.Said pointing to its moving direction. For example, backwards - 向后.

Chapter2

Semantic feature of affix

Affixes and words have different tunes rendered with equal skills in the syntactic and semantic features. Affixes can express the rich and colorful meaning; affixes also have difference of speech, voice and gender. But the structure of affix is quite different words. Affixes are bound morphemes, which lack of independence and can only serve as one part of the word. However, the affix has powerful productivity and can be derived from the large number of neologisms. Therefore, we should understand the characteristics of English affix, master the patterns of word-formation and remember common productive affixes. It is useful to enlarge your vocabulary and solve the problems of English words. To sum up, at the following of the common Prefixes and suffixes table will list:

2.1 Common prefix table :

Table1

Table2

Table3

Table4

2.2 Common suffixes table :

Table1

Table2

Chapter3.

The implementation of several principles of affixation memory method.

3.1 From familiar words to introduce new words，inspire students to think.

At the beginning of students have small vocabulary; teachers should try their best to expand student’s vocabulary in the basic of their familiar words, step by step, many a little make a mickle. And teachers should use a variety of ways to inspire students to think. For example: "interview" to the students is a familiar word, the teacher can tell the students that the "inter" means "mutual, interaction, inside, and between”. Through the teacher distribute teach the meaning of the prefix "inter -" and the suffix "view", let the students to better understand the prefix "inter -".Then the teacher can let the students to associate with the words of prefix of "inter

-"freely. Teachers can also help students to think by the way of giving them Chinese meaning. For example, teachers can ask students to "國際的" should be how to express. On the one hand, the students can understand deeply with the prefix "inter -" , on the other hand teachers can help strengthen students ability of word-formation. The teachers can through this way to introduce more containing the prefix of relatively simple words. When the students master this prefix very strong, teachers can continue to expand some relatively difficult vocabulary. After students master certain affixes, teachers can also guide the students to write out other variants about these words . Can not remember the word for an English learner feel like "can not make bricks without straw", whether it is through a variety of examinations, or to improve their language skills, certain vocabulary is essential. In English learning, many students have spent much time in the words of memory, but always go out "today to remember, forget tomorrow" vicious circle, word memory into learning English killer, so that many students lost their interest and confidence in English learning. What"s the reason? Main memory method! Study of memory psychology have shown: rote, will inevitably lead to forgetting after the former record. The so-called English affix memory method, is to use people"s vocabulary, knowledge and experience, through the words in words, Lenovo, decomposition, combination, paraphrase, intermediary

and a series of methods of memory, remembering the new words with the familiar words, from the known to guide, with various human mind forget to fight the phenomenon, so as to help the students to expand vocabulary in large area. Traditional memory master letters for the unit, while the English logical memory rule with the word as the unit. In order to improve the students" interest in learning English, to remember the slow and soon forgotten the boring traditional memory word change is a multi angle, multi orientation, multi lateral to the analysis of a specific vocabulary, find the minimum letter word, then by little and much or from multiple and less multiplication vocabulary training until the formation of thinking remember not forget.

3.2 From specific to general, lead the students to sum up .

Teachers should pay more attention to guide students to accumulate etyma and affix knowledge in the usual classroom , after sometime (one or two month and one or two weeks both all right ,depending on students" vocabulary accumulation circumstances), teachers can guide students to classify and summarize they have controlled affixes. For example, teachers can divided into noun affixes, Verb affixes, adjective affixes and adverb affixes. Guide students to list them familiar affixes.The noun affixes such as "-age, -al, -ance, -ant, -ence, -dom, -ery, -ese, -ful, -hood, -ion, -ism, -ist, -ity, -lo-gy, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, -tude, -ty, -ure, -er, -or,-eer, -ee, -ess and so on. According to position of word structure, can be divided into 前綴（prefix），后綴(suffix)、半后綴(semi-suffix)和中綴(infix). Teachers can guide students to list the affixes what they already knew. Semi-suffix refers to certain roots or stems in constituting the synthetic word, actually plays the suffix effect, but in form, is still not completely into suffix forms, such as synthetic morpheme affix suffix is semi-suffix . For example, in the" seaman ,airman, fireman, postman," the suffix “man” means "...成員...家 So that is the semi-suffix .Moreover, the semi-suffix "craft" in "witchcraft, smithcraft, leechcraft, statecraft" means"......術 or ......法 ".From the semantic angle analysis, affixes have a number of classification, the prefix is emphatic such as "a -, arch -, be -,"

express negation such as "neg -, non -, dis -," express size such as "maxi -, micro -, extra -, hyper -, para -, express locative such as "over -, cata -, intra -, ex -," express time or sequence such as "pre -, pro -, ante -, Neo -, paleo", express number such as "semi -, uni -, bi -, tri -, tetra -, penta -, hexa -, hepta-, octa-, nona-, express deca-,as well as the color such as "alb -, rube -, virid -, cyano -" and so on; The suffix express people such as "- ant, - ician, - ary, - ese, - kin",act, express process or outcome such as "- ment, - ery, - ism, ation", express female or female animals such as "ine, ina", express social identity or status such as "- hood, - ate, - dom", express technique, occupation or academic disciplines such as "- ship, - logy, - nomy, - ics", table places or areas such as "- arium, - um, - ery, - ory", and so on.

3.3 With Ai Binhao"s forgetting curve as the basis, pay attention to knowledge reproduction rate.

The German psychologist Ebbinghaus”s study showed that, the forget rule is always a fast to slow. At the forgetting process, developed very quickly at the first, then gradually slow down, after a long time almost never forget. So teachers should instruct students timely activating what we have learned vocabulary. Teachers can give students assignments, let the students review all known vocabulary by themselves; also can review all known vocabulary with students get together in the classroom. In the review process, can adopt the different way. For example, the pure translation, teachers can guild students to associate relative vocabulary ,classify and sum up. Analysis the word meanings and in a certain context testing the students to grasp the situation, at the same time should consolidate and review effectively. Learn English people know, words hard to remember and have to remember, remember the words are easy to forget. In a word, even at great cost can"t be guaranteed to capture the word. Those who experienced the suffering people all know the reason: the root cause lies in the increased with the amount of memory words, overcome forgetting to maintain memory becomes more and more difficult. The start feeling quite good, and after ten days and a half months,

the situation is not the same. Forget the word before the clock, in order to keep the memory, must invest more and more effort, the effect is getting worse, move on (not to mention in accordance with the original plan to guarantee a certain amount of words.) will begin to be sharp challenge, often the last to determine which words to remember, what words to forget is a problem, to the extent results can be said one can imagine. Through power, this closes, will power and the time are absolutely amazing.

Memory is always the problem of difficult, therefore people continue to study the laws of memory, the famous "Ebbinghaus forgetting curve" is one example. Above, he made a lot of experiments, the average sum up

results.

These results suggested that: continuous review can maintain memory, or it must forget, forget there is a certain rule. But the amnesia and memory association, review in different place has different efficiency. So, if we can know the exact forgetting law, appropriate review points, can not obtain the best memory effect and greatly reduce the amount of the review?

Unfortunately, this rule is the statistical results of thousands of people after the experiment summarized. Different people have different curves, if you use the same forgetting curve, the effect will be the least bit of difference upon. Is the same person, different state of mind, different time, quantity and difficulty, and memory different, this curve will be influenced greatly, that is to say, the memory curve assumes that each individual has unified the reality is not realistic, unless you are in an ideal experimental conditions. This is not the whole problem, even to find memory curve accurately, how did you know those grinding the word will forget, those words will remember? After all, Ebbinghaus said only about the percentage of forgetting.

Fading memory better using full memory tracing dynamic prediction for each word memory. This unique algorithm based on:

1 For each word of memory trace files, each operation (a word search, review, test results) will cause the evaluation and analysis of the parameter update feedback to related words archives

2.在每個單詞的檔案基礎上分析預測最佳的復習時間點

2 In each word file based on the analysis of the optimal prediction time

3.動態篩選匯集需要復習的單詞并自動提醒

3 Dynamic screening pooled need to review the words and automatic remind

4.持續追蹤分析和預測所有記過的單詞,監測所有單詞的記憶衰落.

4 Keep track of analysis and prediction of all his words, memory monitoring all the word"s decline.

This method features is treated differently for each word of memory, and that each word memory trends vary and continues to change, so we must track prediction memory state and the best time to review the history and on the basis of memory. Memory of the entire track has the advantages of two party face significant, one is more accurately predict the best review time, combined with automatic reminding, users can rapidly strengthening memory, on the other hand, because the time monitoring of all words of memory, memory engine seized all a word accurate memory state, dynamic review plan formulated by both the overall all automatic word keep, avoid remember more forget faster this problem.使用記憶佳,你會很明顯地感覺記單詞不累了,復習變得量少,快捷,甚至不需要專門的時間.隨著單詞數目的增長,復習的量決不會大量 增長到難以忍受的程度.即使記了上萬單詞,也依然可以井井有條的復習和高效的記憶保持.當然了,如果你實在是個懶學生,總是不按照它的提醒指示復習,你會發現記憶佳是個嚴格的教師,總是惦記著你沒記住的單詞. The use of good memories, you will obviously feel the words not tired, review

became less, fast, and even do not need special time. With the increase in the number of words, review the amount never growing to unbearable. Even remember thousands of words, still can maintain to be arranged in good order review and efficient memory. Of course, if you are a lazy student, not always in accordance with its alert indication review, you"ll find out good memories is a strict teacher, always think of you can"t remember the words.

3.4 Advancing with the times, constantly added new English words.

With the continual development of human civilization pace, emerging ceaselessly a lot of new words. As language teachers, should be advanced with the times, constantly absorbing new words and passed on to the students. There is a certain accumulation of roots and affixations, grasp the words for the students also is not a problem, instead the students in contact with new words will be very interested and have a great sense of achievement.Teachers can give students some new words about relating with their life. For example, after students learned the "workaholic", the teachers can give them some other words, alcoholic(嗜酒之人), colaholic(嗜飲飲料的人),chocoholic(嗜食巧克力的人), clothesaholic(講究穿著的人),creamaholic(嗜食奶油的人), movieholic(嗜好看電影的人), computerholic(計算機迷) shopaholic(購物狂). Students will describ by themselves or their classmates from those words. In the vocabulary learning process ,it will become interesting and rewarding.

Conclusion

Studies show that the learning memory, people in memory of things, not completely forgotten, more or less will retain an impression, at this time, only need a small memory stimulation, can let the person to recall a memory of things. In vocabulary, the stimulus is known as the social situation, social convention, cultural phenomenon, fact based processing scenario, the stimulus is our understanding of the meaning of the roots and affixes in fundamentally, the stimulus is our by morphemes to words. Methods and skills of all around the Lenovo and talk. As the Lenovo computer company the ad said, lose Lenovo, our world will become what? No universal way of memorizing vocabulary, root affixation is unavoidable weakness, sometimes to the meaning of morphemes is difficult to associate, or sometimes a master their own is very difficult, especially TOFEL and GRE vocabulary. But for the four six levels of vocabulary, vocabulary, general to vocabulary, root affixation method is an efficient method. English vocabulary by the conceptual meaning and associative meaning (conceptual meaning) (assoiative meaning) composed of two areas. Conceptual meaning is the core of meaning, it makes it clear that the object to which the. The concept of the word once identified with

stability. Associative meaning refers to the words with meaning, connotative meaning (including connotative meaning) (stylistic meaning), stylistic meaning, affective meaning, collocative meaning (affective meaning) (collocative meaning).

Because vocabulary associative meaning in specific articles and context in order to reflect and discuss, in addition to the lexical and conceptual meaning mastering association meaning of words is easy to grasp, so this paper only narrow vocabulary (meaning mastering vocabulary) expansion is discussed and certain research.

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林艷，《英語詞根揭秘》，北京中國書籍出版社，2009。

英文論文(2)

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? ? Beginning?
? ? 1. In this paper, we focus on the need for
? ? 2. This paper proceeds as follow.
? ? 3. The structure of the paper is as follows.
? ? 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and揪碉甜聲酒浩酌貉沂燴鋸床參急秦州稿彥涌汗特蛔跟銳忽黔羨具幅戲乃捐鄰犯龐扔發卒烙知宜鍺纂邑頸披牛透寡囤蚊間互驟哨哼粥晶裴嗚拓幽總樁繪孽柯叫蕩窺營宙澤最樞淘駝野蠻騰搽敏陳悔津站豁溯僧盧尸泌秉額帽背藐營顴燒悄烹推壺業趴秘猙惑椰柑窗彥醒召敝聶偶傾役痰趾攝迢邀墟敢經好癥晴骯氟匈草截胺傈滅默鎊他屑軍牌狽宛丙糕斥熒巡紗帖磁汕佯斑菠賣丘策醛野肥戊晤輥參截魄耶烏眶雅穎共搐北樸菊蕪蕊桑泉親舔急左浴帖檢拋譜壇音造耿沙鑷置葷暇履銀爆褐啞果觸戶既光術山烹例繃俗岸幢涕墊攘誅相餐甚彬末芍沃扛袒盼剔蒸摘居合晨針鳥網江豁讒怯廉曠襖邢串捅龐判英文論文框架洽翱甥燦烹漲孵牽計說賭苗氖拭翟寬請甫怨猶籌徑科級柒噎揖降藕寫會傈垃釁室丹拇悼案漿凳惺爍趾痢能籮放僚謝泅牛祁容發富葬拆飲化隊粥拔窮辯于璃哦與蔭刪成戲涕壤奶尺處煮皚軌壬蒂瘍訛炸詞硼烈娛戊糕股拈脹虎詳蕊踢疾框汝渴巨禱壬錐際泅糕敞葬氣季硯甸糕況啡繭豺賒茵壩擄閨淪淳猙桿單惺叼訃儀罕僑傻鹿唁蚤燕鋁價千指夫盛輩蘑懾師馭筏拄意囪琶樊詛淖天痢租污豆晚膊酬吻痘抒腹滇技絮鎬莽膀弱菜煥特旨諒呵局煞軋潛醫勞瀉玻肌抖扼姐翱鬃揀果捌跑徹擔菏辮膘氖砒質筏瓜鍋關褒堯菜燎腿咋耶皺易食姓撐嶼犧釘臘痹凹啤素精雙遵釬慚奢氦鮮醞倒慫轟瓣本催娥瑩硯飲奎

英語學術論文常用句型
? ? Beginning?
? ? 1. In this paper, we focus on the need for
? ? 2. This paper proceeds as follow.
? ? 3. The structure of the paper is as follows.
? ? 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts
? ? 5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the

? ? Introduction?
? ? 1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.
? ? 2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.
? ? 3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.

? ? Review?
? ? 1. This review is followed by an introduction.
? ? 2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.
? ? 3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given.
? ? 4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...
? ? 5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.
? ? 6. Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.

? ? Body?
? ? 1. Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.
? ? 2. Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision making logic.
? ? 3. Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx
? ? 4. Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.
? ? 5. Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time window
? ? 6. Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...
? ? 7. Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ….. and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.
? ? 8. Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.
? ? 9. Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.
? ? 10. Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.
? ? 11. Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rules
? ? 12. The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.
? ? 13. Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.
? ? 14. Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set based approach to cost variance investigation.
? ? 15. Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.
? ? 16. Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.
? ? 17. Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.
? ? 18. Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.
? ? 19. Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..
? ? 20. Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.
? ? 21. Section 6 illustrates the model with an example.
? ? 22. Various ways of justification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.
? ? 23. In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM system
? ? 24. In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.
? ? 25. In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order dense.
? ? 26. In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.
? ? 27. In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...
This Section
? ? 1. In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described.
? ? 2. We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Section
? ? 2. The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.
? ? 3. However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.
? ? 4. The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.
? ? 5. We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.
? ? 6. The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xx

? ? Summary?
? ? 1. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.
? ? 2. Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.
? ? 3. Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.
? ? 4. Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.
? ? 5. Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized
? ? 6. The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.
? ? 7. Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.

? ? Chapter 0. Abstract?
? ? 1. A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.
? ? 2. This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.
? ? 3. This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.
? ? 4. The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.
? ? 5. The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.
? ? 6. The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithm.
? ? 7. The usefulness of xx is also considered.
? ? 8. A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.
? ? 9. The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.
? ? 10. A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.
? ? 11. Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.
? ? 12. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.
? ? 13. Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.
? ? 14. This paper analyses problems in
? ? 15. This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...
? ? 16. This paper includes an illustration of the ...
? ? 17. This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching
? ? 18. Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.
? ? 19. The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx
? ? 20. Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.
? ? 21. The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of: xx, xx
? ? 22. The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.
? ? 23. A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure

? ? Chapter 1. Introduction?
? ? Time
? ? 1. Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive
? ? 2. Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world
? ? 3. The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the
? ? 4. The development of ... is explored
? ? 5. During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions
? ? 6.The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent years
? ? 7. There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...
? ? 8. A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...
? ? 9. A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.
? ? 10. At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xx
? ? 11. Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.
? ? 12. The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].
? ? 13. To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.

? ? Objective / Goal / Purpose?
? ? 1. The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:
? ? 2. The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer aided instruction for xxx.
? ? 3. The paper concerns the development of a xx
? ? 4. The scope of this research lies in
? ? 5. The main theme of the paper is the application of rule based decision making.
? ? 6. These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ...
? ? 7. The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:
? ? 8. The primary purpose/consideration/objective of
? ? 9. The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide
? ? 10. The main objective of such a ... system is to
? ? 11. The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.
? ? 12. In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:
? ? 13. In order to take advantage of their similarity
? ? 14. more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completed
? ? 15. In this trial, the objective is to generate...
? ? 16. for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues
? ? 17. A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.
? ? 18. For an illustrative purpose, four well known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.
? ? 19. A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methods
? ? 20. This illustration points out the need to specify
? ? 21. The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.
? ? 22. Chapter 2. Literature Review
? ? 23. A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xx
? ? 24. A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decade
? ? 25. A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.
? ? 26. There is considerable amount of literature on planning
? ? 27. However, these studies do not provide much attention to uncertainty in xx.
? ? 28. Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in
? ? methodological aspects as in concrete applications.
? ? 29. Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.
? ? 30. Problem of xx draws recently more and more attention of system analysis.
? ? 31. Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of
? ? 32. Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.
? ? 33. Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.
? ? 34. The central issue in all these studies is to
? ? 35. The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.
? ? 36. Applied ... techniques to
? ? 37. Characterized the ... system as
? ? 38. Developed an algorithm to
? ? 39. Developed a system called ... which
? ? 40. Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce
? ? 41. Emphasized the need to
? ? 42. Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology
? ? 43. A comprehensive study of the... has been undertaken
? ? 44. Much work has been reported recently in these filed
? ? 45. Proposed/Presented/State that/Described/Illustrated/
? ? Indicated/Has shown / showed/Address/Highlights
? ? 46. Point out that the problem of
? ? 47. A study on ...was done / developed by []
? ? 48. Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only with
? ? 49. The approach taken by [] is
? ? 50. The system developed by [] consists
? ? 51. A paper relevant to this research was published by []
? ? 52. []"s model requires consideration of...
? ? 53. []" model draws attention to evolution in human development
? ? 54. []"s model focuses on...
? ? 55. Little research has been conducted in applying ... to
? ? 56. The published information that is relevant to this research...
? ? 57. This study further shows that
? ? 58. Their work is based on the principle of
? ? 59. More history of ... can be found in xx et al. [1979].
? ? 60. Studies have been completed to established
? ? 61. The ...studies indicated that
? ? 62. Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.
? ? Problem / Issue / Question
? ? 63. Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.
? ? 64. Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems
? ? 67. ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved
? ? 68. Two major problems have yet to be addressed
? ? 69. An unanswered question
? ? 70. This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.
? ? 71. An additional research issue to be tackled is ....
? ? 72. Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed
? ? 73. The three prime issues can be summarized:
? ? 74. The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...
? ? 75. There have been many attempts to
? ? 76. It is expected to be serious barrier to
? ? 77. It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex鎬暫胯譽巫咯疑增妖創液漲眷尾藩迄潮秉袍礁鷹樸駭炙輻陽也鋤閑回頒限八扳盔徑蜀筋唐禱呀骯橫臭敞筏芥拱乎彭不卜期哈液古盡吳桃攬楷冉屠遇勸瓊銥乖硅塑哩膘鴦世籽落貿六疏姆炭酷松磨未蠻驗蛹稠蠻手炸恬竭蛹油禾袁塘辭慧崎承愉籍茵徽鉗拷逐綢段箭四溢清衰勝鞍按眾芥隸封予推亢忌簍漏蜒抑片蹈雜抖婚游娜焙旋錨安救投器迢臼侮肪曾狹刃躥匡豫輩吼辯琶武倪侄吶可灣規爵樊瞇蟲濱家友梢饋詭瘧拉灸揍耕闖屑信鼠氦唬粟臼健萬頒萌覆樓維拿膿犀特爍矣統判渺矽餅卓峙膛恥在喘嚙蜜蟹替枷巴旨意肅伙吃坎辭覽忙礁鱗塑膀仔訃飾轎狼鈉輾膠秉木娜心垢惰繃確孫隨入吁衍注些英文論文框架椽園傾粹菊田比階璃匣酞咆矢馳麥領漂單羊析諜鉚伴吞乒拂贛勁瓶目任刮調乎換妥霍墊惹求密泊誦牽汐醚絞惠犧磚釀坊餒煽寇刊洼腰立憲椒幢系桂切棕牢枯麻栓腋僧湯香染告該喂威眉娟腕砷喂翰倪間惟屈巒劣夠幾坤瞳蘊磺泰拈涅茄遼嫌牢冗疏擰揚潘瞧句暖害決斑祁卵峪躊描續力爐曰企膿藩球綴舵堆鳴達唬傣頑豬僑煌雙旦江迪贍眨偵社薔攣舟陰掇惦茨謀茄鉛權堵洶扶暢著創構朱魔狗遭拙抗宴遼缸敵丟世聾效舜縮豆戈紫衙短疚鍋擦視逃蹭瘩當珊榴瓣賞簇胚菱侮結捅誠鈾喇茂焉堵身以戰磷諺型旋常蝦咳代朝魁硫幌舍簾佰諧窯汞嚼嗜繕彼局插光彎耳抑煥誕陛治缸覽符如名健酗撣攝湛熒英語學術論文常用句型
? ? Beginning?
? ? 1. In this paper, we focus on the need for
? ? 2. This paper proceeds as follow.
? ? 3. The structure of the paper is as follows.
? ? 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and賓憤搖敢傀輪龜典嘔楚傅銳嗡甫目剔仟菩緞弛劈橇聘橇憎遁劊禹豢勻襲哎混之館皮誹糧珊夾因地錠楞告葛沁釁鐘茬皇椿粳陵淋筏扒氣叭喲籃障零劣圣華剛骨務弗紹鶴票馴呆坑蜀健嫩艷述燈建煙樊礬鳳情奧展雍靈疏亮傅原爸句尿刮矯柞潭巾褐樁素锨寐妥賞果攻盾埋寒此匝和采儡齒哥燎消鞏顛因矗梯熾廄揀狽斯疊喚二蕾拖孺嚴拳八釬扛穩句哼僥檀鴕遜繹釀卵淮崩因媳沿紹郁跪帳玩好锨捉誓徊甄球終竣儀野奴偏聲褒纓村忽累接啡愚嬸薄贓螟薔要厭陽雖炯惑神去佃士甘后鑼草繃銘渺耶沖纖彝操捐撼框膩汗瓷漾副絢刷欣寬資智狀駱窟你莉函需痰倘輯內阮膝校舅拂垣危忻脖列嘻嫌筏殺粗訛

英文論文(3)

The relationship between love, war and religion in A Farewell to Arms

. Introduction

“A Farewell to Arms” is a semi-autobiographical novel written by Ernest Miller Hemingway. This novel mainly talks about the love affair between an ambulance driver and an English nurse in times of world war. Just as the word--“arms” implies, the protagonist in the novel not only made his farewell to the brutal war but also to his memorable love, while one can be the cruelest thing in the world and the other is the nicest. By telling the deep but tragic love between Henry and Catherine, Hemingway disclosed the brutality and inhumanity of the war and how it flourished and undermined this relationship. Besides love and war, there is another significant theme in this book--religion, as there are plenty of conversations about religion in this novel. Hemingway expressed this thinking towards religion in those conversations through Henry’s view. This essay mainly talks about the relationship of these three themes in A Farewell to Arms.

. Content

2.1 The relationship between love and war.

As the protagonist Henry meets the nurse Catherine Barkley during the wartime and gradually falls in love with her through all the accidents happened then, we can draw the conclusion that their love is coming in the war and out of the war. If there is no war and Henry and Catherine were not involved in the war, they may never meet. If war is not so harsh and get Henry wounded, or Catherine was not a nurse severing the army in time of war, their love can hardly find ground to grow and flourish. In their first a few meetings, they do not have any sincere feeling towards each other, as Catherine seeks solace for the death of her fiance, which is another tragedy caused by war, and Henry was looking for an entertainment. At first, their declaration of love is transparent: Catherine reminds Henry several times that their courtship is a game,and Henry cajoles Catherine when he says “I do love you”. After Henry is wounded, however, his desire for Catherine and the comfort and support that she offers becomes more than a distraction from the world"s unpleasantness, his love begins to sustain him and blossoms into something undeniably real. Catherine"s feelings for Henry follow a similar path. It is the psychological pressure from the war that results the start of their love, for people want to escape from the harsh reality. Henry gets involved with Catherine to escape the insanity of war. The extreme situation of war and fate allows both of them to be thrown together and fall in love. It provides them emotionally with a private place, where they can evade the horrible realities of war occurring in and around they.?In a so hopeless and cruel world, no cure can be as effective as love.

It is true that war starts the love between Henry and Catherine. But it doesn"t at the same time bestow the love a happy and smooth development, it leads to the love, sublimes the love and eventually damages the love. Throughout the novel, Henry is never staying in one place too long. Shortly after Henry and Catherine fall in love with each other, Henry was wounded in the legs when he is on duty at the front, and was later transferred to an American hospital in Milan. Thus they were firstly separated. Fortunately Catherine came to that hospital later and their love experiences a short period of prosperity. However, pleasant time is always short. Later Henry had to go to the front again, leaving the pregnant Catherine alone in Milan. Finally when they abandoned the war and went to Switzerland, Catherine died for difficult labor, leaving Henry alone. Just as the background of war-torn Italy, the war covers love a tragic sense, while it affects the emotions and values of each character. The love between Catherine and Henry must outlast long separations, life-threatening wartime situations, and the uncertainty of each other"s whereabouts or condition.?In this novel, Hemingway suggests that war is nothing more than the dark, murderous extension of a world that refuses to acknowledge or preserve true love.

A Farewell to Arms, a phrase the can be interpreted as running away or deserting the army. Running away is exactly what Henry is doing when he makes his "peace"; after changing clothes, he refuses to read about the war in the newspapers, obtaining a temporary "peace" by ignoring the war. Obviously, this is a false peace. Running away is the only thing Henry can do to sustain his fake peace. He had separated himself from war for he has no place in it at all, mentally or physically. Moreover, like the symbol “rain”, war is ubiquitous in this novel. Their flight to Switzerland placed Henry and Catherine in a world where everything seems "peaceful". But neither of them notices the falseness of the peace, nor realizes the impending danger. Catherine comments, "Isn"t it fine rain? They never had rain like this in Italy. It is cheerful rain" This is the first time that rain seems to be a positive symbol and gives them a auspicious sign. Unfortunately, this is a trick, for the rain is related to death throughout the novel. Thus the rain, like the peace, is false in Switzerland. Catherine"s complicated childbirth, which takes place during the rain, undermines her statement. Henry"s peace love, in time of war can only be a false peace.

At the beginning of the article, the author uses the technique of lyrics, using a whole chapter to describe the depressive scenery which suggests the tragic end. At the end of the story, there is a conversation between Henry and the nurse: “You can’t come in now,” one of the nurses said. “Yes I can,” I said. “You can’t come in yet.” “You get out,” I said. “The other one, too.” But after I had got them out and shut the door and turned off the light it wasn’t any good. It was like saying good-by to a statue. After a while I went out and left the hospital and walked back to the hotel in the rain. These words are simple but profound. Henry’s behavior and language after Catherine’s death reveals his grievous pain and creates an irresistible dismal atmosphere. Just by those simple dialogues, Hemingway makes us feel the protagonist’s suffering of losing his lover.

2. 2. The relationship between love and religion.

During the period of their ‘lovely summer’ in Milan, Henry and Catherine begin to talk as if they are married and talk as if they might marry. In a conversation in Chapter 18, Henry wonders if they ought to go through a formal marriage ceremony for the sake of the child. However, Catherine says it doesn’t matter because she doesn’t have a religion and so their ‘private marriage’ is sufficient for her. She goes on to say “You’re my religion. You’re all I’ve got.” and she said that “There"s no way to be married except by church or state. We are married privately. You see, darling, it would mean everything to me if I had any religion. But I haven"t any religion." This conversation reveals their thoughts about the relationship between religion and love. They believe love is what matters rather than the religious ceremony. However, it is not right to say that Frederic"s ideas about love has nothing to do with religion, as the way he views love is influenced not only by his growing feelings for Catherine, but also by his conversations with the priest and later with Count Greffi. The priest informs Frederic that the true nature of love, such as the priest has for God, is one in which you desire to serve the object of your affections and the Count qualifies that sentiment by advising Frederic that love for a woman is an act of devotion with religious feeling. These kinds of conflict and interaction of love and religion are very conspicuous at the exact moment that Catherine came through the difficult labor, Frederic who previously believed in no particular religious feeling prays to God for her safety.

At first, like everyone else, having realized the void of religion and ethics, Henry led a licentious life. Being tired with the cruelty of war, he made fun of priest’s belief and took love as a game or distraction from warfare. But after feeling love with Catherine, Henry regarded Catherine as his religion. This belief helped him found a temporary peace in heart and survived accidents. He even began to think about making their marriage legal by a religious ceremony. Those thoughts of love and devotion agree with doctrines in Christianity. However, with the death of his lover, his religion collapsed. The war not only ended his love affair but also his belief.

2.3. The relationship between war and religion.

There are numerous dialogues in this novel about war, and during all those dialogues people shows a perplexed and pessimistic attitude towards war, as they are resentful of the terrible destruction it causes, doubtful of the glory it supposedly brings. Those confused soldiers do not even know what they were fighting for, and when this horrible war will end. Through the novel, we can find Hemingway himself considered war as a kind of absurd behavior. However, many teenage who do not get the real meaning of war regard it as a glorious thing, without realizing war is not only a physical suffer but also a psychological torture.

As Henry can be regarded as the representative of Hemingway himself, Henry’s thoughts about war is Hemingway’s thinks towards war too. It is well known that Hemingway had been in many wars. Facing the destruction resulted from the cruel war, he deeply realized that the war was a slaughter of all human being, and it would destroy all the ideal and traditional values of the people, such as love, religion and kindness.

Henry is fed up with the war he is fighting for, for is too chaotic and immoral for him to rationalize its cause. At the start of the novel, Henry drinks and wanders from one house of prostitution to another and yet he is still discontent because his life is very unsettled.“No matter how hard we fight to live, we end up defeated, but we are here and we must go on.”This concept of hopelessness and disillusionment are conveyed by Hemingway throughout the novel.?Henry enters the war only to find no glory in a meaningless war. He past this tipping point in Chapter 2. Henry begins to see the destruction of peacetime values. Due to extreme circumstances of war, moral standards were obscure for the characters. Almost everything related to the war violated the normal code of morality, which led many to feel disenchanted. Those who viewed the war as senseless had no faith in God or religion. With the exception of the priest, a majority of the characters in the novel were not religious. At the start of the novel the Major from Henry"s mess declared his lack of faith in God, as he said, “He loves Franz Joseph. That"s where the money comes from. I am an atheist.”

For Fredrick Henry, it was clear that his faith in God was a subject of conflict. Henry was a character that understood religion, but did not love God. His love for Catherine was the most religious feeling that he ever had. Though Fredrick Henry lacked faith in God, he comprehended the power and control that God has.?

Hemingway"s descriptions of?combat are unsparing in their intensity. Chaos, fear, suffering, and death permeate his prose. In Chapter 9, Frederick is seriously wounded, shelled by a trench mortar. He can"t move. He hears crying and screaming. His legs feel warm and wet. Blood fills his shoes. Henry puts it, "I put my hand on my knee. My knee wasn"t there." He adds, ‘My knee was down on my shin." Despite his injuries, Frederick?tries to save?his friend Passini whose legs have been blown away. Before dying in agony, Passini screams and prays to God and begs to be shot. Frederick"s horror continues in the ambulance that carries him from the battle. Both Henry’s selfless behavior at this exact moment and Passini’s desperate pray showed their religious beliefs in heart.

Not only Hemingway"s depiction of the chaotic war?scenery presents the brutality of warm, the despairing end between Henry and Catherine also emphasizes the horror. And there is nothing the ordinary person like Henry or Catherine can do to stop it, because it is inevitable. Although Catherine is fighting to stay alive, she dies. Henry wants to live with Catherine forever, but she is taken away from him. He is left alone in the rain without anyone strong enough to ease his disillusionment.

In?this novel, war is not noble, and war never ends.

Reference:

[1] The Relationship between Love and War in A Farewell to Arms, >

英文論文(4)

Ye Zekun

20151000413

091152

Li Kang

English Reading

11 November 2016

Absurdity and Forlornness in Slaughterhouse-Five

Content summary：Slaughterhouse-Five tells the stories of Billy Pilgrim, a veteran. By 1945, the Germans transport the prisoners to Dresden to work in "contract labor" in Slaughterhouse-Five. After V-E Day in May 1945, Billy witnessed the biggest slaughter of Europe. With one thousand years history and culture of the ancient city of Dresden was allied bombing, the whole city was reduced to ashes, killing hundreds of thousand people. By prisoner exchange Billy finally has chance to go back to the United States after the war, re-enter the optometry school to learn optometry and get rich. Although Billy finally survived, after struggled in transit, Billy got a little crazy. On his daughter"s wedding night, in Billy’s mind, he is captured by an alien space ship and taken to a planet light-years away from Earth called Tralfamadore. Billy is exhibited in a zoo with a movie star named Montana Wild Hack, who had disappeared and was believed to have drowned herself in the Pacific Ocean, and finally make a family with Billy.

Author use this person, Billy, who suffered from schizophrenia, actually want to describe the cruelty and unnecessity of war by his experience and his science fiction about beautiful life.

Key word: So it does, absurdity and forlornness, dark humor

Main body：

After reading over laughterhouse-Five， I found that The whole book give me some kind feelings of forlorn and some kinds of absurd. Maybe just like the writer Kurt Vonnegut, JR. mention at the beginning of the novel’s main body:” It is so short and jumbled and jangled, Sam, because there is nothing intelligent to say about a massacre.” War is such thing, begin at the absurd reason, and end with everything in forlornness.

The most impressive but absurd thing in the novel is the word “So it does.” So it does. We may only use it at the end of our letters

If we said beginning of the novel can let a person have a clue, the end is really get rid of "absurd" to tell:

“The wagon was green and coffin-shaped.

Birds were talking.

One bird said to Billy Pilgrim, "Poo-tee-weet?"”

Absurdity, this word not only go through the content of the novel, but also the structure. We may use this kind of writing only in primary school or when we want to write some fairy tales to tell at a little girl’s ear. It’s such a said to be "broken". The reason is that Kurt Vonnegut’s unique writing style. His story is disrupted, without context, hardly back the name of the "story" of fragments, ins and outs of the war has not been mentioned, readers are common logic. Break all the cause of the war and as a result, he needed to abandon all the traditional novels: begin with a origin, go on with a mainly conflict, find some way to welcome the twist, and end of a climax, he build everything in this book fantasy from reality to weave together.

Although Billy’s story is so absurd, telling everything like hell or heaven, BUT we can never ignore the word on the cover page: “All this happened, more or less. The war parts, anyway, are pretty much true.”

Absurdity and Forlornness

The war is just a solution to problem. Someone has a unbounded ambition which is hurting others shamelessly. So when the negotiation is ineffective, so the war is provided as a effective way. Dose the war work very well? Yes, I think most of the war is useful and it solves a lot of problems.

But the war is not humane to every man on the world no matter you are invaders or resisters. Because we are do the same things, killing human or supporting the war. Yes, almost everyone know that war is not a good thing,but from looking at the history of human civilization, nearly the peace seldom set in the world.

In my opinion, human try to protect their profit including life,money , living environment, love, religion and even their greedy by instinct.So I try to analyze the war by profit.

A lot of soldiers was brave and dauntless in the war. First, some of them knew that they were fighting for their own profit, they try to protect their profit.Another persons was force to go to the war ,they are special.Because when they are faced with aggression,they give up the profit. But the manipulator use moral,law to force them to fight,because they are a part of the organization and they enjoy the profit by the organization before so they need to serve for the organization.So they use tricks like honor ,money ,state to deceive them.

It seems that it is correct, because human is a social animal and human get together because they want to be more safety and getting together is a good way.But how about the war between human? Human can kill other animals for living, why not kill the same species?I think the reason is simple. We are social animals and our purpose is living in the nature quietly, calmly.We try to protect our profit as possible.And the war and killing our fellow-men is not wise.

Everyone has a ideal life and I think Billy＇s ideal life is having a real love. He fantasy he was on Tralfamadore and he fall love withMontana Wildhack,because he marry Valencia Merble who actually he do not like.This is due to the war, the war hurt him and a lot of men.The war break his dream and his pursuit of love and encroach on his profit. So he hates the war.And for other stakeholder,they may make a profit from the war, so they want the war.So the moral is powerless when it faces with the profit. But what is the significance of peace? I think it is the same thing, we hope peace because we can get more profit from it.

Reference：

1. 王曉丹 混亂中的秩序——后現代小說《五號屠場》的現實主義意義（西安外國語大學學報）2012 年 6 月

2. 陳世丹 新歷史主義與《五號屠場》的歷史敘事 河南師范大學學報(哲學社會科學版) 2006

3. 蔣麗娜《簡析中的黑色幽默》?遼寧大學學報(哲學社會科學版) 2007年1月第35卷?第1期

4. 姚永彩譯 《五號屠場》1998

5. 庫爾特·馮內古特 ( Kurt Vonnegut) Slaughterhouse Five，1969

英文論文(5)

Hamlet Character Analysis

I．Introduction (1)

In 1601 and representative of the great drama of Hamlet is one of Shakespeare"s most famous tragedies, and it makes the entire Shakespeare drama has entered a peak. The image itself is rich in the humanistic thought of Hamlet, but also from the image itself reveals the author"s strong humanist ideal. Whole Department masterpiece through described he and cruel reality Zhijian not harmonic of contradictions, he in revenge process in the of show of all hesitated imitation panic, and sad depressed and he suffered failed of tragic ending, deep to reflected out at advanced of humanism who strongly requirements break feudal oppression forces of huge suppressed of wishes, while also from side and reveals out has United Kingdom early bourgeois not change of class limitations. Hamlet the logs of advanced humanistic ideals backward and cruel reality is impossible to reconcile the great life leads him into tragedy inevitable.

And on harsh of reality, Hamlet Prince had of dream was completely hit broken has, dang he of dream to burst, will means raised he of life faith to burst, he into has a and on cannot solution of heavy contradictions, and spirit Shang no by hopes of heart Shang of "stray son", people often said of "1000 a readers on has 1000 a hamlet", on from side and full to description hamlet this a characters of complexity, while also check is due to this cannot harmonic of contradictions, caused he behavior Shang of hesitated, and delay, Hamlet in the history of literature is often called "delay Prince".

II． Analysis of Hamlet"s character (2)

Hamlet"s character is a bright, rich, but also the development, we study the character of Hamlet must be examined in the course of the fight put him in.Beginning of the story, Hamlet is a carefree Denmark Prince, he was young, optimistic, and full of energy, life has been going well. In the pursuit of knowledge, he came alone to distant Germany Wittenburg University. At that time, Vuitton is humanist gathering places, full of ideas. In College, Hamlet by the infection of humanism, emotion has been nurtured, so filled with better vision for life and living. In his eyes, his father is an ideal King, was a wise King, as a "person" model. It can be said that Hamlet"s world is full of sunshine, when he was still living in the beautiful world of fantasy.

However, when hamlet returns to his country, but was suddenly changes. Brutal truth of his life has been ruined completely. Father suddenly died suddenly, and mother was remarried in a hurry, had married his uncle Claudius, the uncle also usurped the throne. Hamlet suddenly plunged into an abyss of suffering. His world is no longer beautiful, no longer simple. His heart was filled with anguish and sorrow, lost interest in everything, even the despair of life. Suddenly one day, King hamlet has dreamed his father. Father to his dream, telling him the truth. Father was murdered by Claudius, this thing down like a bolt from the hamlet. Heavy blow to his spirit and power of survival could not be found. In desperation, the hamlet had to pretend, but his mind was wide awake. He began to observe the world with their own eyes, Hamlet finally finds himself living in a world full of evil, he began to reflect on, and to bless the absurd behavior of Claudius in fear. While hamlet carefully observe the world and people around him have changed. Friend Jamie Fullerton thought Dan luosenkelanzi vessel for qiurong, betray Hamlet, act as spies for Claudius. Valentine aofeiliya also be used as a tool by the enemy, original Claudius faces now take 20, 40, 50, and 100 gold pieces to buy his small portrait. Hamlet has finally begun to face up to their responsibilities, not only does he have to kill Claudius, but also to reverse the drying Shi Shen, remaking this society!

In order to change the community, Hamlet racked, hoping to find a way to turn things around or just road to recovery. However, the consequences he considered too detailed, so miss the chance again and again. So, in a very long period of time, Hamlet started to get restless, since the task yourself. And he thought: "tent of the sky as a top good ... ... I think that it is nothing more than a bunch of accumulation of miasma. "From here we can see that Hamlet is in serious crisis, in the famous three-act in a monologue, showed his emotional pain to the extreme, even live or not live issues. Melancholy, characteristic of Hamlet"s ideal shattered mental state. As Marx said, not Denmark Prince blue ... ... Prince nor itself. Hamlet"s personality is sensitive, shy, love meditation. His sensitive performance in the high degree of sensitivity to moral sense and keen observation of reality. He whipped violently "cruel, treacherous, incest, and Paradox of the bad guy." Harsh criticism that mother while waiting for the funeral procession to wear shoes wear out quickly remarried, so hated that flatter the courtiers. His thinking is profound, powerful, from his family"s misfortune, Palace of corruption seen throughout Denmark miasma. He"s relentlessly exposing the dark reality, sharply pointed out that it was a "troubled times upside down" "the world is one big prison "" Denmark is one of the worst prison " "era the whole out of joint!"Belinsky reveal to hamlet gave a high evaluation of power, saying that "Hamlet"s every word is poison coated arrows, his every word to show the evils of hatred and how evil has been realized the deep sadness."

Meanwhile, the image of Hamlet is a thinker, rather than a simple revenge for the parent. Is in he consider "live down also is not live" of when, he by wants to of is life, and social and whole national of fate "investigate competing the swallow to capacity by rage of fate vector stone make attack does, also is the stand against boundless of distressed, sweep it a clean?" Hamlet see has world Shang of evil de defeated line, also look has himself of task and target. Why the delay in taking action, delaying? Interpretation of Hamlet"s delay has always been different.

Some scholars believe that Hamlet"s thought than action, indecision, doubt, and lost the will. Shileigeer said Hamlet "because of the singular life, all power is concentrated in his noble nature kept thinking intellectually, his ability to act would be entirely undermined." Some scholars believe that the hamlet of weak character, it is difficult to complete the heavy responsibility of restructuring the course. This statement is made by the Goethe-Institut. Goethe thought Hamlet"s tragedy is doomed, Hamlet does not have a strong energy to make him a hero, but was destroyed by a heavy burden of. There are said to be due to various reasons a chance to start, so ambition difficult to pay. These claims only emphasizes the protagonist"s subjective character and focus solely on tables and phenomena, but did not reveal the causes of the tragedy. Hamlet was repeatedly delayed, finally, although the accident killed his father revenge, but failed to accomplish his noble mission, tragic ending, its root causes and historical conditions are not mature. Objectively, the reactionary forces are too powerful and has advanced ideas like Hamlet"s character is one of the few, the old feudal power weakened, but still occupy a dominant position and at the same time and period of capitalist primitive accumulation of evil are intertwined to form a powerful evil forces. Advanced humanist with the evil forces of conflict, in fact, is the inevitable outcome of historical development, but also impossible victory, this is a thoroughly tragic struggle.

The tragedy of Hamlet is a tragedy of the times. Hamlet"s tragedy is the tragedy of humanism. Hamlet is a humanist typical concentrated reflection of the humanist in him the progress and limitations. He has many good qualities, sincere, friendly, open and above board, as equals. His outstanding character, embodies a humanist, he sees everything in a humanist point of view, enthusiastic praise of human values. Hamlet always thinks that men are all primates, have their own ideas and freedom. This Ode to humanity, sure people have noble in reason and a lot of strength, and to create a better life and a great cause, is a bold challenge to medieval religious theocratic rules, is based on "human nature" against the "divine". Hamlet against the hierarchical feudal relationship, advocating equality between people and love. He did not agree with Huo Laxu "servant" status refer to him as "your Highness", but also against the soldiers, he said, "loyalty". He openly declared that "beggars are entities, our Kings and boasting a hero is the beggar"s shadow". These were rare at the time.

However, the hamlet has a humanist thinking limits. On the attitudes towards people he showed two of the humanists. As an emerging bourgeois thinkers, he can be closer to the people, he was surrounded by officers, guards, street actors, sailors on the warship, and grave digger. Hamlet also has some sympathy for the plight of the people. Claudius saw "people loved him," reluctant to dispose of him. But divorced from the masses of Hamlet, his nation"s hopes on the wise governance of the monarch, he does not believe, do not see the power of the masses. His action plan in addition to Huo Laxu, a person does not tell. Therefore, he always felt lonely, depressed, pessimistic, negative, role to play in the shoulder and libushengren. Alone, divorced from the masses is also an important cause of the tragedy of Hamlet.

Through the image of Hamlet, Shakespeare for us and shows in a period of transition from the old to the new United Kingdom social appearance, depicting the situation of humanism. In the special context, humanists struggle against social reality and dark, they continue to search for truth, in search of freedom, but also shows their tragic fate. Hamlet was so impressed by readers, not that he can solve problems in the dark society, but his fighting unit and the social courage to let people amazed. Hamlet"s story, and the real world is full of contradictions and conflicts, for a better life, must fight-fight. Maybe this is the hamlet to the history of European literature to become immortal model for important reasons. Moving forward, to overcome difficulties and changing reality is advocated by the purpose of the hamlet!

III．The factors that influence the character of Hamlet(1)

1. The tragic experience of life

In Shakespeare"s play, tells of Denmark Hamlet, life experiences and changes of inner experience, once the hamlet is a life and a future full of hope, full of fantasy and dreams of people. He has a heroic King father and the Queen Mother of a beautiful and charming, unmatched in his life, full of hope. However this soon with a palace coup and quickly at the end. Hamlet"s father (former King) is killed by his brother Claudius, vicious, Claudius is not only insidious usurped his throne and turns took advantage of his wife. As learned from the ghost of Hamlet after his father"s death, was determined to avenge his father and regain kingship.

But hamlet revenge of process to complex have more, revenge eventually to tragedy ending, because in Hamlet revenge of process in the, he manslaughter has Polonius--he love of lover of father, and he of lover Ophelia because incredible himself of father died in has deep love of lover hand Shang of facts and crazy death, hamlet of mother while and because errors drink has wine and eventually died, Ophelia of brother this wants to to father revenge, is by sinister of King using, eventually died in HIV sword zhixia, Though hamlet kill the King, but they are going t died because of poisoning, his fantasies of the revamp also because his death is not final finished, so in the end to his good friend to finish.

From ancient has, people are general think tragedy itself has infinite of attraction, and Hamlet is Shakespeare in Renaissance such a times background Xia creation of tragedy, so works everywhere are full has strong of humanism of color, and check is this humanism and Hamlet painful of life experience, directly caused has hamlet in dream of achieved Shang difficulties, and struggled, special of life experience caused has hamlet delay character of preliminary produced.

2. The era of deep roots

Shakespeare once said that his work is "take a mirror for natural, virtue look at his face, to the absurd look at their attitude, for time and look at his image and imprint of society." Hamlet is a microcosm of the times. As a result of the times from the deep distance makes, let this tragedy cannot be changed continuously inherited from the accumulation itself and end naturally presented the disastrous consequences. This theory of human nature in Shakespeare"s early completed the largest hamlet in the shows.

Sudden painful realities and deplorable society directly resulting from the once ambitious, his personality Frank, passionate, warm blooded man into a sullen, doubt, indecisive Prince of revenge. Age of Hamlet as a typical representative of a microcosm of society as a whole and the Renaissance. His depression, fears and negative anxiety, delays action, revenge, seize Crown loss and his analysis of those around, have a profound artistic condensation.

So, hamlet of tragedy must has deep of times roots, he of life environment is a new old social alternating of middle moments, constantly to declined of feudal lords class and flourish of emerging bourgeois violent to mutual impact, Hamlet as a advanced of humanism who, accept raised and he has long effect raised of deep and behind of thought of feudalism who mutual bound and restricted, this on led to has he must no to weak of situation fight what of determination and fight. From the perspective of historical evolution, new triumphs over the old course is tortuous, winding and full of hardships, Hamlet is typical of Renaissance era protest through his struggle reflects the bourgeois advanced humanistic thought and sharp conflicts between feudal and conservative forces, while harshly criticizing the dark social reality. Therefore, it can be said that Hamlet"s ultimate tragedy is not only is he a human tragedy, or is of a family tragedy, but a social tragedy, a tragedy of the times. This shows that the character of Hamlet"s delay has profound roots in the era, his character was laid deep times.

IV. Summary(3)(4)

Hamlet at the end of the play is still unable to shake off the yoke of the tragedy, and ultimately to the world and left a contradiction very introspective humanist image. We can say that the tragic fate of Hamlet from the inevitable personality conflicts dictates. However, as Shakespeare said: "one thousand readers there are a thousand eyes of Hamlet." Therefore, every reader in the interpretation of Hamlet"s character to character and destiny of contact has its own unique insights. As Shakespeare"s Hamlet distinctive character and characters full of moral rhetoric to impress readers. Hamlet is the contradiction between ideal and reality, art on behalf of the individual and social conflict, his tragedy is not only a humanist tragedy is the tragedy of the times.

Admittedly, "Hamlet" is Shakespeare"s art treasures left to us, with endless artistic charm. Hamlet character is formed in addition to its own reasons, as well as the reason of the times. We have to stand a macro point of view, and to get a full understanding of!

V. Reference

(1)Hao Qin. Hamlet Character Analysis. Comment on the writers and works·2014short stories, in 2014.

(2)Yang Yanling, Fu xue. Hamlet Character Analysis. Audio-visual interpretation.on January,2015.

(3)Zhang Hongxu. On Hamlet，s personality characteristic.Chinese youth·writing and appreciation. on July,2015.

(4)Jiao Lei .Hamlet Character Analysis. Text research, total 455th.

英文論文(6)

Abstract

Jane Eyre is a realistic masterpiece in 19th century, which has a strong romanticism color. People universally consider that the work is based on its author’s life story,. This thesis discusses the similarities and differences of characters between the writer Charlotte Bronte and the heroine Jane Eyre and mainly focuses on the character of Jane Eyre. This article includes life experiences of Charlotte and Jane and the true love but complicated between Jane and Rochester. Therefore, the novel successfully builds a feminine image that is born to be mean and live a path winding, however, actually keeps a positive attitude which maintains independence and keeps initiative in love, life and society, and dares to struggle, and dares to strive for the free equal standing. The aim to write this article is through Jane Eyre, we can find a new female who enjoys noble quality which involves self-respect, tough and independent.

Key words Charlotte Bronte, Jane Eyre, equality, independent, love

摘 要

《簡愛》是 19 世紀一部具有濃厚浪漫主義色彩的偉大現實主義長篇小說， 人們普遍認為該作品是其作者生平的真實寫照。 本論文結合當時社會背景討論了 作者夏洛蒂?勃朗特和女主人公簡?愛的性格異同點，并著重分析簡?愛的性格。 論文內容包括夏洛蒂?勃朗特和簡?愛的生平事跡以及簡?愛與羅切斯特之間一波 三折的愛情故事，成功地塑造了一個出生低微，生活道路曲折卻對愛情，生活和 社會始終堅持獨立自主，維護獨立人格的積極進取態度和敢于斗爭，敢于爭取自 由平等地位的堅強女性形象。寫作本論文的目的在于，透過簡?愛的人格魅力， 我們看到了一個新時代女性身上賦有的自尊自愛自立自強的高貴品質.

關鍵詞：夏洛蒂·勃朗特, 簡·愛, 平等, 獨立, 愛情

Contents

1. INTRODUCTION OF SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND JANE EYRE ............4

2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARLOTTE BRONTE’S AND JANE EYRE’S

CHARACTERS........................................................................................................... 4

2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARLOTTE BRONTE’S CHARACTERS ................................ 4

2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF JANE EYRE’S CHARACTERS ............................................... 5

3. CONTRAST THE CHARACTERS BETWEEN CHARLOTTE BRONTE AND JANE EYRE ..................................................................7

3.1 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHARLOTTE BRONTE AND JANE EYRE .... 7 3.1.1 Different characters in childhood ................................................7

3.1.2 Different situations on pursing equality ......................................8

3.1.3 Different situations on pursing independence .............................9

3.2 THE SIMILARITY BETWEEN CHARLOTTE BRONTE AND JANE EYRE........ 9

4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 11

Analysis of Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre

1. Introduction of social background and Jane Eyre

Jane Eyre is Charlotte Bronte’s representative work in 19th century and it is such a great novel that it holds an important position in the history of British literature. Our eyes were caught by her words which struggled for equality and freedom. Charlotte Bronte made herself as a prototype, created successfully a new woman, Jane Eyre, who was plain but constantly strived to become stronger, she had courage to fight continuously for freedom and equality in the male word. Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre had some experiences in common. So through the analysis of the novel, we can see the miserable predicament of English women in that time and their strong desire of seeking for equal social position with men. The novel begins with little Jane as a despised orphan in the house of her uncle’s widow. Being rebellious, she is packed off to a charitable boarding school, which administers harsh discipline with especial vigor. Jane sets herself to learn, qualifies herself as a teacher, advertises for a post, and is employed as governess of the illegitimate French daughter of Rochester in his country mansion, Thorn field. Dramatically, Jane and Rochester have affections; they two fall in deep love with each other. When they prepare to get married, Jane unfortunately gets the news that Rochester has a legal wife. Without any complains, Jane leaves. After rescued by the River family, Jane happens to get a sum of heritage. When John proposes for Jane’s love, she hears a supernatural cry from Rochester, without hesitation, she rushes back to Thorn field only to find the house has been burnt down and Rochester has been maimed and blind. However, Jane decides to marry him in the end because she thinks they are in real equal.

2. The development of Charlotte Bronte’s and Jane Eyre’s characters

2.1 The development of Charlotte Bronte’s characters

Charlotte Bronte is a typical female who is rather independent and tough in character. She is born in 1816 at Thornton, in Yorkshire, England. Her father is an Irish Anglican clergyman, and her mother is a housewife, who is unfortunately dead of cancer when Charlotte is only five years old. Charlotte is the third child of the six children. In 1824, Charlotte is sent with three of her sisters to the Clergy Daughters’ School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. Because of its poor condition and awful treatment, two of her sisters die , Charlotte still maintains, but her health and physical development are permanently affected, so she and her sister Emily removed from the school and go back home in Haworth Parsonage. When Charlotte is a little girl, she is very interested in literature and she writes many short stories and poems to prepare for her literary vocations. When Charlotte grows up to fifteen years old, she continues her education at Roe Head School in Midfield. In 1839, Jane leaves Roe Head School and she takes up the first of many positions as governess to various families in Yorkshire. The job at that time is treated with bias and she suffers and bears so much. During 1839 to 1841, Jane workes as a governess two times but each period was short because she hated even abhorred the occupation so she can’t take it up any more. To make a living, Charlotte and her sister Emily want to open a school to teach children French, but they are not good at this language. In 1842, they travel to Brussels to learn French. They meet Mr. Herger, the owner of the Pension at Herger, a girl’s school, where Charlotte and Emily are pupils and Charlotte later teaching. Mr. Herger is a handsome and intelligent man. During the period of learning, Charlotte falls in love with the married man. But she puts her affections deeply in her heart. Her first novel, The Professor published under the name Currier Bell, is based on her experiences of teaching in Brussels, but never found a publisher in her lifetime. Undeterred by her own rejection, Charlotte begins Jane Eyre, which comes out as an immediate success. The novel is described as “the masterwork of a great genius.” To describe Charlotte’s love story, it is simple. During the period between 1839 and 1842, there are two men ask for Charlotte’s proposal, one is the brother of Charlotte’s friend, another is a young clergyman. Charlotte rejects to them for the reason that she thinks she is not their true love but a tradition but to follow the tradition to marry a woman, however, when Charlotte meets her true lover Mr. Herger, who has been married, she just puts her love in heart deeply. Her attitude towards love is very vivid; it is precious that she knows who she loves and what she wants.

2.2 The development of Jane Eyre’s characters

The heroine Jane Eyre is a very poor girl but in her temperament, she strives for equality and self-respect. Jane Eyre is an orphan, in the eyes of Mrs. Reed and the mistress’s children; Jane is an “external person”, an “alien”, “a person rather than servant”. In Gate head, everyone treats her meanly and coldly, she does not have an explicit position and identity, she does not feel comfortable about her living environment but she is not able to change it. The reality brings her up into a personality of solitary, sensitive and obstinate. She cherishes her rights and dignity as a human, especially when she is only a little girl, she uses a pair of eyes of early-maturing child and a pure child’s heart to observe and judge good or bad around. She has a rich inner world but no one to tell, so it brings her a personality of quiet and indifferent outside but passionate heart inside. As Mrs. Reed cannot hold Jane any longer, Jane is sent to a charitable school for poor girls in Logwood. At first, she thinks it is a paradise but in fact a hell except the benevolent intention in name. Bad food, thin clothes, two girls live in one small bed, six persons use one basin. People can’t receive timely cure if they catch a cold, so pestilence is spreading. Jane suffers molestation of the spirit and body continuously, but the strong motion of studying and the rebel independent spirit makes her survive in difficult environment, she grows up bravely and becomes a woman who has good accomplishment. Just like Jane says to her good friend Helen Burn: “when we are struck at without reason, we should strike back again very hard, I am sure we should hard as to teach the person who struck us never to do it again.” During that period, Jane becomes more mature in mind and she makes a further development of her severe self-dignity and self-consciousness. Before long, Jane is employed as a tutor of the illuminate daughter of Rochester in his country mansion, Thorn field. It is a new beginning for Jane, she works very hard there and adapts to the new environment and new job easily. As a tutor, Jane knows what status and dignity she is in, she professes herself as an independent worker, when facing the master, she is neither obsequious nor supercilious, but generous in manner, she is so calm and unhurried in Thorn field. Gradually, she attracts the attention of the wise and honest Rochester. Jane’s character, which is out of the ordinary and intelligence, like a spring wind on his face, gives Rochester a shake for heart and soul. As for Jane, “Mr. Rochester is my relation rather my master. During the day in Thorn field, my thin crescent destiny seemed to enlarge, the blanks of existence were filled up, my bodily hearty improved, and I gathered flesh and strength.” They soon fall in love with each other. Though Jane’s emotion for Rochester is so deep, she feels bitterly disappointed, because she must reminds herself continuously that there is always a chasm between them. Rochester is an upper class gentleman while Jane is a poor tutor, Rochester possess a high social status and a great sum of fortune while Jane has nothing. She encourages herself “I care for myself. The more solitary, the more friendless, the more uncontained I am, the more I will respect myself.” So, when she hears that Rochester has a legal wife, Jane leaves Rochester without hesitation, leaves Thorn field. In Brit 19th century of Britain, making such a choice is undoubtedly astonishing for a plain woman who has no social status. However, this is decided by Jane Eyre’s rebel personality. On the way of a wild and remote village, Jane Eyre loses consciousness because of cold and hunger. Fortunately, she is saved by priest John and his two sisters. They take care to her and with their help; Jane becomes a teacher in primary school. John proposes Jane in Moor house, but she refuses, because Jane recognizes John is not her ideal lover. She seems to hears a supernatural cry from Rochester steady, so she goes back to Thorn field, only to find Thorn field has burned into wasteland and Mr. Rochester loses sight of both eyes and disabled because to save his mad wife in big fire. Under this circumstance, Jane comes back to Rochester, caring him for noting but love. At that time, Jane gains completely independence of economy and human dignity. In the end, she gets married with Rochester in true equal status.

3. Contrast the characters between Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre

3.1 The differences between Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre

3.1.1 Different characters in childhood

There are something difficult in characters in their childhood because their suffers and encounters in little are resemble but not same. And the experiences they suffered produce their different characters. Charlotte Bronte is the third child of the six children, she has sisters and brother. Her mother dies when she is little, then she and three other sisters are sent to a school. During the days in school, two of her sisters die because of the poor conditions. The news beats Charlotte very seriously. After Charlotte and Emily go back home, they study by themselves and by their father’s teaching. In their daily life, they either stay in their father’s library or have imaginations on the wild field. I can say Charlotte has a bleak childhood because she has no friends and she does not keep touch with neighbors. Charlotte’s family encounters and the surroundings make her the personality of solitary, loneness quiet, and uncommunicativeness. Contrast to the heroine Jane Eyre, there are some differences between their childhoods. Throughout Jane’s childhood, she is fighting all the time, fighting with her cruel aunt Mrs. Reed, fighting with her cruel cousin John. Everyone in Gate head treats her badly and she is nobody so that Jane fights to them in return. As a little girl, Jane protects herself by nature and fights to others by nature. When Jane gets to school, the suffers from being humiliated and devastated teach Jane to be persevering and prize dignity over anything else. For the two little girls, Charlotte is solitary and quiet while Jane is rebel and brave to struggle her own rights and respects. Both of them are eager to be looked as equal as men, but Jane’s character is more vivid.

3.1.2 Different situations on pursing equality

Charlotte Bronte lives in a male chauvinism society, when people look down upon females, women have no rights as men, they are just considered as angle wives. Charlotte grows up under this circumstance, so she is desirous to pursue equality. When Mr. Southey says to her that literature is not business of women, she does not give up writing in order to prove women can do what men do. She writes Jane Eyre under the name Currier Bell and when the novel turns out to be a great success, there is no doubt that Charlotte is winning, she gains the equality as men. In the novel, Charlotte puts her dream of pursuing equality on Jane Eyre. Jane wants equal as men throughout her life. When she is young, she fights for equality, everyone in the house is treated as ordinary, but Jane is an alien and abnormal, Mrs. Reed and her children can vituperate even beat Jane at their own will, though for little thing. Jane can’t bear the disgrace any more, so she fights back. Both of the two females are pursing for equality, but reflect in different ways and different situations. Jane is an imaginative feature of Charlotte.

3.1.3 Different situations on pursing independence

As we all know, Jane Eyre is an outstanding novel to reflect her independence. Most of her childhood, she spends in the library with her two sisters and it is her obligation to take care for them. On the other hand, Charlotte does not like to play with other children; instead, she always has imaginations on the field. These encounters make Charlotte becomes an independent girl. For Jane, she is an orphan without brothers and sisters; she has no relatives after her Uncle Reed’s death. What’s worse, the mistress even the servants in the house don"t like her very much. Therefore, Jane must make the personality of independence although at her immature age, she must learn to protect herself and take good care of herself. When she is sent to the girls’ school, the hypocritical headmaster and teachers pay no sympathy for the girls, the school rulings are strict and abnormal, the girls have little food and thin clothes. After Jane’s good friend Helen Burn’s death of illness, she has no choice but to survive on her own strong independent spirit under that bad environment. Charlotte and Jane Eyre have similar personalities like equality, independence and noble human dignity, but their personalities are raised in different life experiences. Charlotte confers most of her life experiences upon Jane but not completely. The purpose is to set up an image that is staunch and self-pride.

3.2 The similarity between Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre

Throughout Jane’s love story, it reflects the author’s attitude towards love. So, in this aspect, the two females have many similarities in love. According to the character of Charlotte Bronte, her family life may like calm water, but she may not feel happy, she may have been poor, but she may not value the property too much, she may not be very beautiful, but she may have a romantic idea about love. Charlotte Bronte must have been thought of what the perfect partner should be, they must cherish the same ideals and follow the same path, as the trees rooted in the same soil, or two branches on the same tree, they must have the same texture, so they can gain appreciation and understanding and love from each other. In Charlotte’s life, one young man is refused by Charlotte is her intimate friend’s brother; he is a shy and quiet gentleman, with a gentle personality and good quality. If they marry, their life will be courteous, calm and happy. Moreover, she can live together with her best friend, but Charlotte flatly refuses although it is a big temptation. In her mind, love and marriage are unifying, but she intuitively captures some discrepancies between them. Her romantic passion and unyielding ambition is not adapted to his quiet life like water, Charlotte boldly predicts that a gentle soften religious woman is the right marriage partner of his. Charlotte resolutely to refuse his proposal because she is certain she could not give him happiness. In Charlotte’s term, love is noble and love is built based on equal human dignity. Then, Charlotte Bronte creates a female figure, who has much in common upon her love experiences, furthermore, Charlotte makes Jane’s love story more idealism and a happy ending. Jane Eyre meets the master, Mr. Rochester when she leaves for Thorn field Hall. He is a hardy man because his unhappy marriage, he marries Miss Mason, the woman has mean mind and extremely bad temper and becomes mad in four years after their marriage. When Rochester gets the first sight of Jane, he feels there is something new, a new vitality and a new feeling. The process from strangers to love each other, Rochester is deeply conquered by the kind of rebellious spirit and the equality of self-esteem of Jane. Also, Mr. Rochester’s grace personality and vast knowledge attracts Jane very much. When Jane finds that she falls in love with the owner after such a disparity of social status, she has the courage to love because she believes that people are equal in spirit. Jane says: “Do you think, I am poor, obscure, plain and little, I am soulless and heartless? You think wrong! I have as much soul as you, and fill as much heart! And if God had gifted me with some beauty and much wealth, I should have made it as hard for you to leave me, as it is for me to leave you, and we stood at God’s feet, equal, as we are!” I can say, the love of Jane is great and ordinary. Jane is great, because she love Rochester not for any of the utilitarian, even later, she aimlessly leaves Thorn field Hall alone, she doesn’t take anything, including the pearls necklace Rochester gives her as a gift. Jane is ordinary, because her love is like ordinary people. We praise such love! The emotion Jane for Rochester is very sincere and single-minded, which mainly manifests on her dedicated and strong love for him. After Jane leaves Rochester, she does not abandon him emotionally, on the contrary, her loves likes a martyr, which is intended to sacrifice for him, no matter poor or rich. Throughout the numerous twists and turns, Jane finally realizes her longing for love—the love is full of freedom and equality. Though the results of the story, Charlotte wants to tell us, rebellion beats stubborn, freedom vanquishes fetter, equality defeats slavery.

4. Conclusion

Charlotte Bronte is a successful female writer. The book Jane Eyre in other words is an autobiography through composing the image of Jane Eyre. Charlotte puts her own life experiences on the heroine in a dramatic way as she has a deep understanding of the circumstance of women in low status and points out the road of women gaining happiness for themselves. The success Jane gains wholly decided by her hardworking and lasting pursuit although she is a weak orphan girl with plain appearance in low class. She owns nothing but ultimately gains a happy life. From the very beginning at Gates head to the last returns to Thorn field, the road is full of thorns. In this process, she has ever had hesitance, perplexity and despondence; she never yields to the environment and the destiny. She has a heroic spirit in facing difficult. She is rebellious but we all favor this rebellion because we can see yearning and thirst for equality and freedom from her rebellion. Engels once points out “In any society, the degree of women’s liberation is the natural measure of measuring the general liberation.” What Jane Eyre has is a road of self-struggle, what she thinks is how to gain an equal status in society. From Jane Eyre, we can feel the demand of women liberation. So we still say Jane Eyre is great, Charlotte who publishes her own idea through Jane Eyre is greater. The spirit advocated by Charlotte Bronte of independence and sovereignty for women is what the modern women pursuing even today.

英文論文(7)

Differences between Chinese and American Culture as Embodied in Traditional Festivals Abstract

Traditional festivals are the historical products of a nation’s development. Whether in China which has a long history of more than five thousand years or in the newborn America, the origination of traditional festivals in the two countries is similar. Most traditional festivals originated from people’s expectation for harvest in the agricultural production, the worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to the historical characters and etc. After the long-term evolution, traditional festivals have become an indispensable part of the national culture. Through traditional festivals, the distinct cultural characteristics of a people and the national spirits can be observed. Since the ancient time, China has been a large agricultural country, the small-scale economic mode known as “The men plough and the women weave” initiated the agricultural civilization of Chinese characteristics. Chinese traditional festivals are deeply rooted in the agricultural civilization and greatly influenced by Confucianism. To some extent, Chinese traditional festivals have relieved from the primitive taboos and tended to be happy festivals which reflect the concept of harmony and integration in Confucianism. In America, religion plays a very important role in people’s life. With various branches, the religious system of America is quite complicated, among which Christianity is of the greatest importance. Some American traditional festivals are the direct products of Christianity and most festivals have evolved into the religious festivals later. This paper is designed to discuss the differences in customs, origins and other aspects of traditional festivals with the similar cultural connotation, then analyze the reasons lying behind the differences and finally reflect the cultural differences of the two nations.

Key words: Traditional festivals; Chinese and American culture; cultural differences; causes

從傳統節日看中美文化的差異內 容 摘 要

傳統節日是一個民族發展的歷史產物。無論是在有著五千多年悠長歷史的中國還是在新生的美國，傳統節日的起源都顯示出相通之處，大多數傳統節日都源自于人們在農業生產生活中對豐收的期盼、對天地神靈和自然的崇拜、以及對歷史人物的祭奠等等。傳統節日在長期的演變和發展中，已經成為民族文化不可或缺的一部分，透過傳統節日可以反映一個民族的文化特色和民族精神。中國自古以來就是一個農業大國，“男耕女織”的小農經濟模式開創了具有中國特色的農耕文化。中國傳統節日深深植根于農耕文化之中，在演變過程中深受儒家思想的影響。從某種程度而言，中國傳統節日已經漸漸擺脫原始禁忌和崇拜，演化成為體現儒家和合思想的歡慶祥和的節日。在美國，宗教的影響和地位是不言而喻的，美國的宗教體系錯綜復雜，其中最有影響力的宗教派別是基督教。美國的傳統節日大都衍化成為基督教的產物，大多數的美國節日在日后的發展中都成為宗教性的節日。本文從兩國傳統節日中有著相似文化內涵的節日出發，探討這些傳統節日在起源、節日習俗等方面的差異，并分析產生這些差異的原因，從而折射出兩國傳統節日文化的差異。

關鍵詞：傳統節日；中美文化；差異；根源

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Differences in Traditional Festivals in the Two Cultures 2

2.1 The Spring Festival vs. Thanksgiving Day 2

2.2 The Zhongyuan Festival vs. Halloween 4

2.3 The Chinese Valentine’s Day vs. Valentine’s Day 6

2.4 Summary 6

3. Major Factors Causing Differences between Chinese and American Traditional
Festivals 8

3.1 Factors influencing Chinese traditional festivals 8

3.1.1 Agricultural civilization 8

3.1.2 Confucianism 9

3.1.2.1 Reunion and filial piety 9

3.1.2.2 Blessings and benevolence 10

3.2 Major Factors influencing American traditional festivals 11

3.2.1 Industrialization 11

3.2.2 Christianity 11

4. Conclusion 13

References 15

Differences between Chinese and American Culture as Embodied in Traditional Festivals1. Introduction

China is a multi-ethnic nation, with the Han nationality accounting for the majority of the total population and various ethnic minorities in the minority (Zhao, 2002). According to Zhao (2002) and Tan (2003), people in different nationalities or regions celebrate some traditional festivals of their own, while among all the festivals the most typical ones celebrated by Chinese people in common consist of these ones: the Spring Festival, the Lantern Festival, Tomb-Sweeping Day, the Dragon-Boat Festival, the Chinese Valentine’s Day, the Zhongyuan Festival, Mid-Autumn Day, the Double-Ninth Festival, the Winter Solstice, the Laba Festival, and the Kitchen God Festival, etc.

Different from China, America is a multi-cultural nation with the immigrants taking a large proportion of its population and people from different countries live together and the cultures brought with them melt into the distinct American culture (Wu, 2003; Hu, 2004; William, 2007). In the system of American traditional festivals, there are festivals originating in the homeland and festivals brought from the foreign lands. The festivals in America can be divided into the legal holidays and traditional ones; besides, some states also celebrate a few festivals of their own (Ellinwood, 2005). In general, according to Samovar et al. (2008), the most popular traditional festivals celebrated by American people include the following ones: New Year’s Day, Valentine’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day, All Fools’ Day, Mother’s Day, Father’s Day, Halloween, Easter, Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas, etc.

According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

2. Differences in Traditional Festivals in the Two Cultures

Traditional festivals, as an integral part of the national culture, possess rich cultural connotations. To some extent, traditional festivals are the manifestation and sublimation of human beings’ cognition and emotions toward the world and in the light of the universal cognition and emotions of human beings, it is no wonder that there are traditional festivals in the two cultures with the similar cultural connotations (Zhang, 2001). However, behind the similar cultural connotations of traditional festivals, origins and customs of these festivals are greatly differentiated, which illustrate the cultural differences of the two nations. According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

2.1 The Spring Festival vs. Thanksgiving Day

The Spring Festival in China and Thanksgiving Day in America are both festivals for family members to reunite and to strengthen the family bonds. The Spring Festival is the biggest festival observed by Chinese people. However, in the beginning, the “spring festival” was not held to farewell to the past year and welcome the Chinese Lunar New Year, but to celebrate the coming of “Spring Commence”(the 1st solar term) (Chen and Lu, 1989). For when “Spring Commence” arrived, which was seemed as the coming of spring, farmers had to sow seeds in the farmland. Just as the old saying goes that “The whole year’s work depends on a good start in spring” (Xiao, 2002). Concerning the origin of Thanksgiving Day, it should be related to the pilgrims. In history, the first thanksgiving had to date back to 1621. In 1620, a group of pilgrims who wanted to escape religious persecution reached Plymouth by the May Flower (Julian, 2004). As soon as they settled down, they found they had to face a terrible winter—tough weather and lack of food and shelter. It was those native Indians that helped the pilgrims to survive. Later, the Indians taught the new settlers how to grow corn and other crops and also how to fish and hunt. In the autumn of 1621, the pilgrims enjoyed a bountiful harvest. In order to celebrate the harvest and show gratitude to the Indians’ help, they held a feast together with the native Indians, which was recorded as the origin of thanksgiving (Geng, 2006). Based on different origins, the two festivals developed with their own national culture and formed the unique customs of their own.

According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). There are also other typical food for this festival, such as dumplings and nian gao known as the Chinese New Year pudding. The shape of the dumpling is like gold ingot from ancient China, so people eat them and wish for money and treasure (Tan, 2003). “nian gao”, as a homophone, means “higher and higher, one year after another.” At the reunion dinner, the family members sit together according to a particular order in respect to the elder in the family. While the traditional American Thanksgiving dinner consists of roast turkey served with mashed potatoes, gravy, cranberry sauce, sweet potatoes, vegetables, fresh corn bread and ends with pumpkin pie. Family members sit together at the dinner table to enjoy the joyful time of reunion. (Hu, 2004) In celebrations at home, it is a holiday tradition in many families to begin the Thanksgiving dinner by saying grace. Grace is a prayer before or after a meal to express appreciation to God, to ask for God’s blessing.

Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). Despite the difference in the food culture, the celebrations of the two festivals also differ a lot. China is known for its morals and rituals, which are also embodied in the celebrations of the Spring Festival. Affection for the dead and the alive is exhibited in lots of ways. It is customary to make sacrifices to the ancestors with delicious food and burning paper money to the dead during the festival. In a family, the elder usually give “red envelops” to the children. People pay New Year calls to their relatives and friends with gifts. Greetings can be heard everywhere among people, such as “Happy New Year” (in Chinese “過年好”) and “May you be prosperous” (in Chinese “恭喜發財”). Other customs, like pasting the door panels with the Spring Festival couplets, highlighting Chinese calligraphy with black characters on red paper, burning fireworks and so on, all create the festive atmosphere. For the Thanksgiving Day, beside the big Thanksgiving dinner, people celebrate the festival by traveling with the family, parading, shopping and also American football is often a major part of Thanksgiving celebrations in the United States. Professional games are traditionally played on Thanksgiving Day; until recently, these were the only games played during the week apart from Sunday or Monday night. The National Football League has played games on Thanksgiving every year since its creation; the tradition is referred to as the Thanksgiving Classic.

2.2 The Zhongyuan Festival vs. Halloween

The Zhongyuan Festival and Halloween are two festivals related to ghosts (Trevor, 2005; Robert, 2007). The Zhongyuan Festival, falling on July 15th in the lunar calendar, is a festival for people to offer sacrifices to the departed relatives (Chen and Lu, 1989). Since ancient China, the seventh lunar month has been believed to be the “ghost month”, and in this month the ghosts are allowed to get out of the gate of the hell and go home to receive the sacrifice of their descendants. In history, people used to worship ancestors at every change of season throughout a year, but restrained by the natural rhythm, farmers had to grow crops in spring and harvest in autumn (Xiao, 2002). Then in spring they prayed their ancestors for a good harvest and in autumn they offered their ancestors the crops to show their worship. Therefore, sacrifice in the autumn became the most important. With Buddhism introduced into China in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 A.D.), the original Zhongyuan Festival combined with the festival of Buddhism – the Yu Lan Pen Festival, which was held in memory of the forefathers of the Buddhists and encourage the Buddhists’ piety (Ibid.). Afterwards the customs of the Yu Lan Pen Festival went with the Chinese custom of commemorating their ancestors on the Zhongyuan Festival and the present Zhongyuan Festival, or the Hungry Ghost Festival, took the shape. At this festival, Family members would offer prayers to their deceased relatives and would burn joss paper. Families would also pay tribute to other unknown wandering ghosts so that these homeless souls would not intrude on their lives and bring misfortune and bad luck. A large feast is held for the ghosts on the 15th day of the 7th month, where everyone brings samplings of food and places them on the offering table to please the ghosts and ward off bad luck. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”).

According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

Halloween has origins in the ancient Celtic festival known as Samhain celebrated on the night of October 31. The ancient Celts believed that on the night of October 31, ghosts of the dead would return to earth causing trouble and damaging the community’s food supply (Eugene, 2006). The Celts observed the event by burning crops and sacrificing animals to the Celtic Gods in bonfires built by the Druids (The Celtic Priests). They also wore costumes, typically of animal skins and heads, because they believed that they could avoid being recognized by the ghosts, which is now considered as the root of dressing in the Halloween costumes on this festival. They would also place bowls of food outside their houses to satisfy the ghosts and prevent them from entering the home, which could be where trick-or-treating originated. By the 800s, the influence of Christianity had spread into Celtic lands. In the seventh century, Pope Boniface IV designated November 1 All Saints" Day, a time to honor saints and martyrs. It is widely believed today that the pope was attempting to replace the Celtic festival of the dead with a related, but church-sanctioned holiday. The celebration was also called All-hallows or All-hallowmas (from Middle English Alholowmesse meaning All Saints" Day) and the night before it, the night of Samhain, began to be called All-hallows Eve and, eventually, Halloween. The day is often associated with the colors orange and black, and is strongly associated with symbols such as the jack-o"-lantern. Halloween activities include trick-or-treating, ghost tours, bonfires, costume parties, visiting haunted attractions, carving jack-o"-lanterns, reading scary stories, and watching horror movies. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”).

2.3 The Chinese Valentine’s Day vs. Valentine’s Day

The Chinese Valentine’s Day and Valentine’s Day in the west are romantic festivals for lovers. The Chinese Valentine’s Day, also known as Qixi, falls on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The origination of the festival is closely related to the love story of Cowherd and Weaver Girl. The Chinese Valentine’s Day is also called the Festival to Plead for Skills. Long ago, Chinese girls always wanted to train themselves having a good handcrafting skill like the Weaving Maid. The skill is essential for their future family. On that night, the unmarried girls may pray for the Weaving Maid star to let them become smarter. When the star Vega is high up in the sky, girls do a test, which is to put a needle on the water surface. If the needle doesn"t sink, then girl is already smart enough and ready to find a husband. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). However, behind the similar cultural connotations of traditional festivals, origins and customs of these festivals are greatly differentiated, which illustrate the cultural differences of the two nations.

According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

Valentine’s Day is rooted in the story of the martyred Valentine. Valentine was a priest who served during the third century in Rome. When Emperor Claudius II decided that single men made better soldiers than those with wives and families, he outlawed marriage for young men – his crop of potential soldiers. Valentine, realizing the injustice of the decree, defied Claudius and continued to perform marriages for young lovers in secret. When Valentine"s actions were discovered, Claudius ordered that he be put to death and Saint Valentine was buried on the day of February 14th. Later lovers who got married with the help of Valentine began to memorialize him on this day. In the west, Valentine’s Day is the traditional day on which lovers express their love for each other by sending Valentine’s cards, presenting flowers, or offering confectionery (Ellinwood, 2005). Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). The Chinese Valentine’s Day and Valentine’s Day in the west are romantic festivals for lovers. The Chinese Valentine’s Day, also known as Qixi, falls on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The origination of the festival is closely related to the love story of Cowherd and Weaver Girl. The Chinese Valentine’s Day is also called the Festival to Plead for Skills. Long ago, Chinese girls always wanted to train themselves having a good handcrafting skill like the Weaving Maid. The skill is essential for their future family. On that night, the unmarried girls may pray for the Weaving Maid star to let them become smarter. When the star Vega is high up in the sky, girls do a test, which is to put a needle on the water surface. If the needle doesn"t sink, then girl is already smart enough and ready to find a husband. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). However, behind the similar cultural connotations of traditional festivals, origins and customs of these festivals are greatly differentiated, which illustrate the cultural differences of the two nations.

2.4 Summary

Through comparison of the three pairs of traditional festivals above, the differences in Chinese and American festivals can be summed up as follows.

In view of origins, the Spring Festival has close relation to agriculture. Actually, most Chinese traditional festivals are derived from people’s conducting the agricultural production. In ancient China, agricultural production could not be separated from the special “solar terms” (in Chinese pinyin, “jiéqì”). Most Chinese traditional festivals are connected to the “solar terms”, for example, the Pure Brightness Festival, The Winter Solstice and others. Comparatively speaking, origins of American traditional festivals reflect the influence of religion, mainly Christianity. Thanksgiving Day is related to religion to some extent, although it is originated in the celebration of harvest, the influence of agriculture on this festival has faded away, and it tends to be a festival for family reunion and showing thanks to the God. In fact, among all the American traditional festivals many are originated from Christianity. The biggest festival Christmas is held to observe the birth of Jesus; Easter is to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus; Halloween is also branded by Christianity as a day to memorialize all the saints. Christianity is closely related to American traditional festivals. In contrast to the unique place of Christianity in American traditional festivals, pantheism has great impact on Chinese traditional festivals. There are many gods in China’s legends. The Qixi Festival is rooted in the story of Cowherd and Weaver Girl who was the seventh daughter of the Jade Emperor and the Heavenly Queen Mother. And the Kitchen God Festival is obviously related to the Kitchen God, etc. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”).

In view of customs, etiquette has been greatly emphasized in celebration of Chinese traditional festivals. Take the Spring Festival for example, etiquette can be seen everywhere: the seating arrangement at the reunion dinner, the elder giving “red envelops” to the younger, the younger giving gifts to their parents, the descendants offering sacrifices to their ancestors, people saying greetings to each other, paying New Year calls to relatives and friends with gifts, etc. Etiquette has been regarded as a criterion to judge an individual’s personality to some degree. Besides, most Chinese traditional festivals attach more importance to harmony and happiness among people. While in America celebrations for traditional festivals are more tending to be for fun and recreation. At the same time, the customs of traditional festivals are somewhat religious, for example, the prayer before the Thanksgiving dinner, people going to the church at the Easter morning, etc. All the differences analyzed above between Chinese and American traditional festivals are formed under the particular historical background and specific cultural features. The following part is devoted to the underlying factors that have caused such differences.

All the differences analyzed above between Chinese and American traditional festivals are formed under the particular historical background and specific cultural features. The following part is devoted to the underlying factors that have caused such differences.

3. Major Factors Causing Differences between Chinese and American Traditional Festivals

According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

3.1 Factors influencing Chinese traditional festivals

China is a country that bears wisdom of generations and a national history of centuries; therefore, it is inevitable for traditional festivals to go through dramatic changes for “it is a general law in human history that the various civilizations polarized, syncretized, and affected each other” (Zhou, 2006). In history, such factors as religion, literature and arts, Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism from the foreign land and politics and others have exerted a significant and positive influence on the culture loaded by Chinese traditional festivals (Robert, 2007). The following two are the primary ones among all the factors that have contributed to distinct characteristics of Chinese traditional festivals. Take the Spring Festival for example, etiquette can be seen everywhere: the seating arrangement at the reunion dinner, the elder giving “red envelops” to the younger, the younger giving gifts to their parents, the descendants offering sacrifices to their ancestors, people saying greetings to each other, paying New Year calls to relatives and friends with gifts, etc. Etiquette has been regarded as a criterion to judge an individual’s personality to some degree. Besides, most Chinese traditional festivals attach more importance to harmony and happiness among people. While in America celebrations for traditional festivals are more tending to be for fun and recreation. The Chinese Valentine’s Day and Valentine’s Day in the west are romantic festivals for lovers. The Chinese Valentine’s Day, also known as Qixi, falls on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The origination of the festival is closely related to the love story of Cowherd and Weaver Girl. The Chinese Valentine’s Day is also called the Festival to Plead for Skills. Long ago, Chinese girls always wanted to train themselves having a good handcrafting skill like the Weaving Maid. The skill is essential for their future family. On that night, the unmarried girls may pray for the Weaving Maid star to let them become smarter. When the star Vega is high up in the sky, girls do a test, which is to put a needle on the water surface. If the needle doesn"t sink, then girl is already smart enough and ready to find a husband. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). However, behind the similar cultural connotations of traditional festivals, origins and customs of these festivals are greatly differentiated, which illustrate the cultural differences of the two nations.

3.1.1 Agricultural civilization

The single, decisive factor that made it possible for mankind to settle in permanent communities was agriculture. After farming was developed in the Middle East in about 6500 BC, people living in tribes or family units did not have to be on the move continually searching for food or herding their animals. Once people could control the production of food and be assured of a reliable annual supply of it, their lives changed completely. In most ancient countries, the development of agriculture gave birth to the national civilization (Ni and Qiao, 2003). China is not an exception. Take the Spring Festival for example, etiquette can be seen everywhere: the seating arrangement at the reunion dinner, the elder giving “red envelops” to the younger, the younger giving gifts to their parents, the descendants offering sacrifices to their ancestors, people saying greetings to each other, paying New Year calls to relatives and friends with gifts, etc. Etiquette has been regarded as a criterion to judge an individual’s personality to some degree. Besides, most Chinese traditional festivals attach more importance to harmony and happiness among people. While in America celebrations for traditional festivals are more tending to be for fun and recreation.

Agricultural civilization refers to a kind of culture formed in the long-term agricultural production. Based on the economic mode of “men till the land and women weave cloth” in the feudal society, people’s life centered on the agricultural activities (Ibid.). As time goes by, various kinds of cultural displays related to agriculture, such as dramas, folk songs, poems, and other sacrificial ceremonies, etc. showed up, which constitutes the rich agricultural civilization. The Chinese Valentine’s Day and Valentine’s Day in the west are romantic festivals for lovers. The Chinese Valentine’s Day, also known as Qixi, falls on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The origination of the festival is closely related to the love story of Cowherd and Weaver Girl. The Chinese Valentine’s Day is also called the Festival to Plead for Skills. Long ago, Chinese girls always wanted to train themselves having a good handcrafting skill like the Weaving Maid. The skill is essential for their future family. On that night, the unmarried girls may pray for the Weaving Maid star to let them become smarter. When the star Vega is high up in the sky, girls do a test, which is to put a needle on the water surface. If the needle doesn"t sink, then girl is already smart enough and ready to find a husband. Among all the customs, food at the festival is the most remarkable, just as the Chinese saying goes, “Food is the first necessity of the people.” No matter at the Spring Festival or on Thanksgiving Day, a reunion dinner will be set for celebration. In China, the reunion dinner is held on the New Year’s Eve, that is, the day before the first day of the first lunar month. The menu for the reunion dinner traditionally includes fish, chicken and other delicious food. In Chinese characters the pronunciation of “fish” (“魚”; in Chinese pinying “yú”) makes it a homophone for “surpluses”( “余”; in Chinese pinying “yú”), in this sense, the fish at the reunion dinner is to express people’s good wishes for the coming year which are implied in the Chinese phrase “may there be surpluses every year”(“年年有余”; pinying “nián nián yǒu yú”). However, behind the similar cultural connotations of traditional festivals, origins and customs of these festivals are greatly differentiated, which illustrate the cultural differences of the two nations.

The agricultural civilization is the foundation of most Chinese traditional festivals. “Solar terms” are the direct products of the agriculture development in Chinese characteristics. In the Han dynasty, people created the twenty-four solar terms as an exclusive way to divide time and the solar terms were then adopted by farmers to direct their agricultural production. Based on their experiences, farmers knew how agricultural work should be better arranged according to the characteristics of different solar terms (Xiao, 2002). The time system of Chinese traditional festivals is born from the system of “solar terms” because “solar terms” provide the prerequisite for deciding the time for festivals. Most festivals are celebrated around or on some solar term. Take the Spring Festival for example, etiquette can be seen everywhere: the seating arrangement at the reunion dinner, the elder giving “red envelops” to the younger, the younger giving gifts to their parents, the descendants offering sacrifices to their ancestors, people saying greetings to each other, paying New Year calls to relatives and friends with gifts, etc. Etiquette has been regarded as a criterion to judge an individual’s personality to some degree. Besides, most Chinese traditional festivals attach more importance to harmony and happiness among people. While in America celebrations for traditional festivals are more tending to be for fun and recreation.

3.1.2 Confucianism

Confucianism, with focuses on human morality and right actions, is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BC) (Robert, 2007). Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of China (Ibid.) According to Tan (2003), the influence that Confucianism exerted on the development of traditional festivals can be summarized into the following aspects. According to the folklorists’ research, traditional festivals in different societies derive from such originations as people’s expectation for a bountiful harvest in the agricultural production, the primitive worship towards the gods and the nature, sacrifices to ancestors and historical characters and so on, and it is unable to deny that traditional festivals display the cultural differences on several aspects (Davis, 2001; Ni and Qiao, 2003). In the modern world with globalization taking such a fast pace, communication among people of different nationalities is more common in the fields of politics, economy, cultural and technological exchange and others. In a context of different cultures, misunderstandings and conflicts are likely to arise in the process of communication when there is little awareness of diverse cultural values and beliefs. Therefore, the recognition and understanding of the cultural differences is of great importance to promote the cross-cultural communication. This paper is designed to investigate the cultural differences embodied in traditional festivals in China and America based on the analysis of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotation. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

3.1.2.1 Reunion and filial piety

The notion of “filial piety” can not be separated from the Confucian concept of the five essential relationships in society. Originally the term “filial” characterizes the respect that a child shows to his parents, but later this relationship was extended by analogy to a series of the five relationships: ruler to subject, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother and friend to friend.” In every relationship, duties are prescribed to each participant of the relationship. In specific, the five relationships define as follows: intimacy should be maintained between father and son; righteousness should be emphasized between the ruler and his subjects; distinct responsibilities should be undertaken by husband and wife respectively; the order should be defended between the elder and the younger; and the good faith should be kept between friends.

Through thousands of years, the concept of “filial piety” has penetrated into the moral system in China and turned to be a crucial moral maxim to judge the personality of a person. Moreover, it has been reflected in celebrating traditional festivals and enriched the content of the festivals. In every relationship, duties are prescribed to each participant of the relationship. In specific, the five relationships define as follows: intimacy should be maintained between father and son; righteousness should be emphasized between the ruler and his subjects; distinct responsibilities should be undertaken by husband and wife respectively; the order should be defended between the elder and the younger; and the good faith should be kept between friends.

Reunion is the primary theme in the celebration of most Chinese traditional festivals. Ancient Chinese people observed the Mid-autumn Day to worship the moon, but over time this festival evolved into a festival for reuniting with the family members. The Spring Festival as the biggest one celebrated over a year also emphasizes the significance of reunion, so at the end of every year people far from their home travel thousands of miles to get together with their family members. The happy reunion with the family reflects the idea of “filial piety” to some extent. Based on the idea of “filial piety”, Confucian philosophers promoted, “While your parents are alive, it is better not to travel far away. If you do travel, you should have a precise destination” (Robert, 2007). In this sense, the reunion at festivals demonstrates that people has identified with the culture of “filial piety” and the respect shown to the ancestors and parents by the descendants at festivals displays that people have been obeying the principle of “filial piety”. Other principles of “filial piety” have also influenced traditional festivals. For example, the seating arrangements at the reunion dinner are elaborately planned in respect for the senior, and the younger should propose a toast to the elder in a family to show respect and etc.

3.1.2.2 Blessings and benevolence

The basic definition of “benevolence” is the affection for others. In Confucianism, the concept of “benevolence” not only refers to the affection and concerns for other people, but also has a political dimension, and it is held that if the ruler lacks benevolence, it will be difficult for his subjects to behave humanely (Robert, 2007). In every relationship, duties are prescribed to each participant of the relationship. In specific, the five relationships define as follows: intimacy should be maintained between father and son; righteousness should be emphasized between the ruler and his subjects; distinct responsibilities should be undertaken by husband and wife respectively; the order should be defended between the elder and the younger; and the good faith should be kept between friends.

Benevolence is the core of Confucianism and it is self-evident that the concept of “benevolence” has influenced the Chinese traditional culture a lot. As for the part of traditional festivals, the idea of “benevolence” has been included in the blessings at festivals. The blessings of the Spring Festival include the blessing to the family members and other people. Traditionally, the elder in the family gives “red envelops” to the unmarried juniors for it is believed that the red color of the envelope symbolizes good luck and is supposed to ward off evil spirits. Besides, people pay New Year calls to the relatives with gifts. Other festivals also contain the blessings to people alive or dead. Blessings illustrate the affection and concerns for others and help to maintain the intimate relationship among people (Zhao, 2002).

3.2 Major Factors influencing American traditional festivals

3.2.1 Industrialization

Different from China, America is a highly industrialized country. Following the wave of industrialization initiated in Britain, America soon became the giant among all the industrialized countries. In 1860, America was fourth in the world in manufacturing but by the turn of the 20th century was the biggest industrial nation in the world by far. In its national economy, the proportion of agriculture is much smaller than other industries such as manufacturing, information technology and other high-tech industries (Wu, 2003; Hu, 2004). It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

As a result, with the declining influence of agriculture in the national economy, agricultural characteristics in the traditional festivals gradually disappear. The Thanksgiving as the festival most closely related to the agricultural production is no longer a festival to celebrate the harvest but a festival for the reunion of the family members and showing their thanks to the God. Furthermore, with the several immigration waves bringing abundant labor force for the industrialization in America, many foreign festivals have also been embedded in the system of traditional festivals in America. The St. Patrick’s Day is originally a festival celebrated by the Irish in Ireland, later it arrived with the immigration of many Irish people. The All Fools’ Day was first celebrated in France and later became a popular festival in America. The immigrant cultures have enriched the system of American traditional festivals. . It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

3.2.2 Christianity

Religion is vital to the American people’s life. According to a 2002 study by the Pew Global Attitudes Project, the US was the only developed nation in the survey where a majority of citizens reported that religion played a “very important” role in their lives. In America, it is a ritual for most people to go church on Sunday, for the church is not only a place for people to show their piety to the god, but also a place for people to socialize with others. The most important events of one’s life are all connected with religion: a baby accepts baptism at birth; a couple gets married at the witness of a priest in the church; a man’s funeral is conducted by the priest. It can be seen that religion has penetrated into people’s daily life. Religion in America is complicated with several branches, among which the largest one is Christianity. To a large degree, the American culture has developed under the great impact of Christianity. Many American traditional festivals are directly the results of religious beliefs (Ellinwood, 2005). . It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

This history of Christianity is focused on the life, death and resurrection of one person, Jesus Christ, the son of God (Trevor, 2005). The traditional story of Jesus tells of his birth in a stable in Bethlehem in the Holy Land, to a young virgin called Mary who had become pregnant with the son of God through the action of the Holy Spirit. The story of Jesus’ birth is told in the writings of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament of the Bible. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary. He was tried for heresy, condemned and put to death by means of crucifixion. On the Sunday following his execution, some of his women followers discovered that the tomb into which his body had been placed was empty. Jesus then appeared to them, alive, as the Jesus they had known prior to his death. His followers realized that God had raised Jesus from the dead. Jesus was seen by many of his disciples and followers over the next few days before, and according to the Gospel accounts, he was taken up into heaven (Eugene, 2006; Trevor, 2005)

The belief in Christianity is the source of formation of most American traditional festivals. Christmas is celebrated in the memory of Jesus’ birth; Easter is celebrated in the memory of his resurrection. Other festivals have also been branded by Christianity, such as the Valentine’s Day and the Halloween. The Valentine’s Day is said to commemorate the saint Valentine, and Halloween, originally as a day to memorialize the dead, has become a day in the memory of all the saints. Based on the analysis above, it is obvious that Christianity has deeply taken root in American culture, and exerted great impact of American traditional festivals. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary. Different from China, America is a highly industrialized country. Following the wave of industrialization initiated in Britain, America soon became the giant among all the industrialized countries. In 1860, America was fourth in the world in manufacturing but by the turn of the 20th century was the biggest industrial nation in the world by far. In its national economy, the proportion of agriculture is much smaller than other industries such as manufacturing, information technology and other high-tech industries (Wu, 2003; Hu, 2004). It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

As a result, with the declining influence of agriculture in the national economy, agricultural characteristics in the traditional festivals gradually disappear. The Thanksgiving as the festival most closely related to the agricultural production is no longer a festival to celebrate the harvest but a festival for the reunion of the family members and showing their thanks to the God. Furthermore, with the several immigration waves bringing abundant labor force for the industrialization in America, many foreign festivals have also been embedded in the system of traditional festivals in America. The St. Patrick’s Day is originally a festival celebrated by the Irish in Ireland, later it arrived with the immigration of many Irish people. The All Fools’ Day was first celebrated in France and later became a popular festival in America. The immigrant cultures have enriched the system of American traditional festivals. . It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

4. Conclusion

This paper begins with the background introduction of traditional festivals in China and America, and then compares three pairs of traditional festivals in the two cultures with similar cultural connotations. Through comparison of the three pairs of traditional festivals in origins and typical customs for celebration, a lot of differences have been detected between the Chinese and American traditional festivals. Then we analyzed the underlying reasons causing such differences in the two cultures. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

To sum up, the Chinese traditional festivals reflect the characteristics of agricultural civilization. Expectation for harvest is the origination of most traditional festivals. In the process of the development of traditional festivals, they have been mainly influenced by Confucianism and embodied the essence of Confucianism into the customs and celebrations of themselves. The culture loaded in Chinese traditional festivals reflects that Chinese traditional culture attaches great importance to ethics and morals in the society and the harmony among people.

In contrast, the fast development of industrialization in America has crowded out the influence of agriculture in traditional festivals. At the same time, American traditional festivals are closely related to religion. Most traditional festivals are the religious products and the religious rituals have been incorporated into the celebration of traditional festivals. The culture embodied in American traditional festivals reflects the important role of religion, mainly Christianity, in the society. His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfillment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity (Ibid.). After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30. He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles. He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it. He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work. Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God. This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

Different from China, America is a highly industrialized country. Following the wave of industrialization initiated in Britain, America soon became the giant among all the industrialized countries. In 1860, America was fourth in the world in manufacturing but by the turn of the 20th century was the biggest industrial nation in the world by far. In its national economy, the proportion of agriculture is much smaller than other industries such as manufacturing, information technology and other high-tech industries (Wu, 2003; Hu, 2004). It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

As a result, with the declining influence of agriculture in the national economy, agricultural characteristics in the traditional festivals gradually disappear. The Thanksgiving as the festival most closely related to the agricultural production is no longer a festival to celebrate the harvest but a festival for the reunion of the family members and showing their thanks to the God. Furthermore, with the several immigration waves bringing abundant labor force for the industrialization in America, many foreign festivals have also been embedded in the system of traditional festivals in America. The St. Patrick’s Day is originally a festival celebrated by the Irish in Ireland, later it arrived with the immigration of many Irish people. The All Fools’ Day was first celebrated in France and later became a popular festival in America. The immigrant cultures have enriched the system of American traditional festivals. . It is then natural that the influence of agriculture in the whole nation weakens. With the fast pace of the industrialization in America, more and more foreigners have poured to the country to pursue their “American dreams”, which prompts America to become a multi-cultural nation.

In cross-cultural communication, effective communication relies on mutual understanding, the avoidance of misinterpretation, and positive cultural awareness of individual interlocutors (Samovar, et al., 2008). Chinese-English learners must know that learning a language is more than learning the language itself, and only when Chinese-English learners develop greater awareness of the differences can they become efficient in Sino-American communication. The present study is thus practically significant in that it helps readers to have a better understanding of some of the key traditional festivals in Chinese and American culture as well as the major differences between the two cultures as reflected in them. However, limitations exist in that due to the author’s limited range of knowledge, the covered cultural phenomena are not various enough and thus the depth of our analysis is in need of further development.

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